Annotated bibliography

Reference contents · Conclusion register · Structured register · Search history

Checked 2026-10-02. This register includes research, consensus, commentary and a small number of definition/documentation sources; it is not a count of independent trials. Duplicate DOI/PMID records are merged, while citation aliases and per-chapter extractions remain traceable in JSON. Access labels distinguish full text, abstract and metadata; a source may have different access/extraction detail across chapters. No total participant count is implied.

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Paper / source record	Why it is useful; main boundary
Joyner MJ, Coyle EF (2008): Endurance exercise performance: the physiology of champions	Narrative review. Champion endurance athletes; synthesis, not a new cohort. Review, not a training trial. Does not prescribe amateur hours.
Jones AM, Carter H (2000): The effect of endurance training on parameters of aerobic fitness	Narrative review. Endurance athletes. Review from 2000. Does not give amateur hour prescriptions.
Poole DC, Rossiter HB, Brooks GA, Gladden LB (2021): The anaerobic threshold: 50+ years of controversy	Narrative review. Exercise physiology. Conceptual review. Does not validate a zone chart.
Molmen KS, Almquist NW, Skattebo O (2025): Effects of exercise training on mitochondrial and capillary growth in human skeletal muscle: a systematic review and meta-regression	Systematic review and meta-regression. 5973 participants; 353 mitochondrial and 131 capillary articles. Well-trained mean VO2max 62.2±6.7, few groups, 97% men. ET bin is everything below VT2, not Zone 2. Mostly untrained. Not cycling performance. No newer meta-analysis found through 2026-10-02.
Cove B, Chalmers S, Nelson MJ, Anderson M, Bennett H (2025): The effect of training distribution, duration, and volume on VO2max and performance in trained cyclists: a systematic review, multilevel meta-analysis, and multivariate meta-regression	Multilevel meta-analysis and meta-regression. Trained cyclists. Abstract: 41 studies, 81 groups, 797 participants. Inclusion was sex-specific Tier 3 study-mean VO2max (men >=59, women >=54.4 mL/kg/min), not every participant >=59.. POL meant LIT or habitual training plus intervals shorter than 5 min above MLSS or at the highest sustainable intensity, not a measured 80/20 or below-LT1 distribution. Intervals longer than 5 min were non-polarized. Counts are internally inconsistent (abstract 41 studies; discussion 44; 23 randomized plus 21 non-randomized). Do not use body confidence intervals. Do not copy the reported weekly volume 4.9 plus or minus 7.3 h (range 2.6-14.3): that SD is implausible for the range. Certainty low. Null volume regression is not a causal optimum or proof that extra hours cannot help.
Moran-MacDonald A, Wilson S, Wu Z, Haines G, Beaupre L, Aube J, Andrews C, Jonsson N, Gurd BJ (2026): The effectiveness of polarized versus high-intensity training in moderately trained cyclists: a randomized parallel-design study	Randomized parallel added-volume trial. 19 moderately trained cyclists/triathletes, 17 men; baseline VO2max not reported in the retrieved abstract. Small, short, mostly male and moderately trained; total load not matched. Nonsignificance is not equivalence or a long-term dose optimum. Does not test a 6/8/10/12 h dose curve. The abstract's internally questionable exploratory eta-squared/power statement is not interpreted.
Rosenblat MA et al. (2025): Which training intensity distribution intervention will produce the greatest improvements in maximal oxygen uptake and time-trial performance in endurance athletes? A systematic review and network meta-analysis of individual participant data	IPD network meta-analysis. 348 endurance athletes (296 male, 52 female); 150 recreational, 198 competitive. Abstract only; not cyclist-only; nonsignificance is not equivalence.
Seiler S, Jøranson K, Olesen BV, Hetlelid KJ (2013): Adaptations to aerobic interval training: interactive effects of exercise intensity and total work duration	7-week randomized comparison of exclusive interval durations. 35 recreational cyclists, 29 men 6 women, VO2peak 52±6, ~6 h/week. Abstract only. Recreational, not well-trained. n=9 per interval arm.
Rønnestad BR, Hansen J, Vegge G, Tønnessen E, Slettaløkken G (2015): Short intervals induce superior training adaptations compared with long intervals in cyclists - an effort-matched approach	Randomized 10-week training comparison, effort-matched not power-matched. Trained-to-well-trained male competitive cyclists; 20 randomized, 9 short and 7 long completers. Male only. Small n. Dropouts. Effort matching confounds duration with power. Mechanism not measured in this trial.
Rønnestad BR, Hansen J, Nygaard H, Lundby C (2020): Superior performance improvements in elite cyclists following short-interval vs effort-matched long-interval training	3-week randomized comparison, effort-matched by RPE. 18 elite cyclists, VO2max 73±4 mL/kg/min, n=9 per group. Abstract only. Very short. Elite male-dominated sample. One lab.
Sylta Ø et al. (2016): The effect of different high-intensity periodization models on endurance adaptations	Randomized 3-group, load-matched. 63 cyclists, VO2peak 61.3±5.8. Candidate for the prompt's sequencing claim; transcript not supplied. Abstract only. Do not map increasing to VO2-first or decreasing to threshold-first.
Odden I, Nymoen L, Urianstad T, Kristoffersen M, Hammarström D, Hansen J, Mølmen KS, Rønnestad BR (2024): The higher the fraction of maximal oxygen uptake is during interval training, the greater is the cycling performance gain	9-week training intervention; %VO2max measured every session; regression plus post-hoc median split, not randomized to high vs low fraction. 22 well-trained cyclists, 19 men 3 women, VO2max 67.1±6.4 mL/kg/min. Association not causation. Post-hoc split. Easy-volume imbalance. Three women. R2adj is not fraction-alone variance. Title overclaims.
Bossi AH, Mesquida C, Passfield L, Rønnestad BR, Hopker JG (2020): Optimizing interval training through power-output variation within the work intervals	Acute crossover, matched duration and mean power. 14 cyclists, VO2max 69.2±6.6. Acute only. No adaptation follow-up.
Hanstock HG, Govus AD, Stenqvist TB, Melin AK, Sylta Ø, Torstveit MK (2020): Influence of immune and nutritional biomarkers on illness risk during interval training	Randomized 4-week comparison of three HIT prescriptions; primary outcomes were illness and biomarkers, not performance. 27 well-trained male cyclists and triathletes enrolled; 25 analyzed, age 29.9±9.1, VO2peak 64.0±6.4 mL/kg/min, performance level 3-4. Illness was the primary question. Small cells, n per arm not stated in text. Male only. Accepted manuscript, not the copyedited journal version. Does not show equivalence of formats.
Rønnestad BR, Hansen J (2016): Optimizing interval training at power output associated with peak oxygen uptake in well-trained cyclists	Acute randomized-order crossover to exhaustion; not a training study. 13 well-trained male cyclists, VO2peak 66.7±6.1 mL/kg/min, at least 6 h/week. Acute only. To exhaustion, not a fixed session. Male only. Journal issue 2016; DOI registered 2013. Stroke volume subset n=6.
Sánchez-Jiménez JL, Salas-Montoro JA, Mateo-March M, Priego-Quesada JI, Zabala M, Pérez-Díaz JJ (2025): Is intensity the most important factor in determining the amount of prior work accumulated that affects cyclists' acute durability? A systematic review	Systematic review, 21 studies, search 18 Sep 2024. Cyclists, mixed level. Protocol heterogeneity; about 30% of studies found by hand search; does not include 2025-2026 trials after the search date.
Norte BR, Slinn MM, Johnson KO, Mahon E, Shepherd SO, Strauss JA, Louis JB (2026): Graded Carbohydrate Ingestion up to 120 g·h−1 Attenuates the Reduction in Critical Power Following 3 h of Moderate-Intensity Exercise in a Dose-Dependent Manner	Crossover, 3 h at 95% GET with 0, 60 or 120 g/h CHO, 3-min CP estimate. 16 endurance-trained cyclists/triathletes, VO2max 51.8±6.8. 3-min estimate of CP; modest VO2max; n=16; 90 g/h not tested. Section heading says GI discomfort was not altered, but post hoc tests show 120 g/h worse than water on cumulative score and three peak symptoms. Not universal tolerance or intolerance. GET preload is not an FTP ride.
Gejl KD, Nybo L (2021): Performance effects of periodized carbohydrate restriction in endurance trained athletes: systematic review and meta-analysis	Systematic review and meta-analysis. 9 studies; VO2max ≥55 (women) or ≥60 (men) mL/kg/min. Nonsignificant pooled effect is imprecise, not proof of no benefit. Includes the positive Marquet trials. Heterogeneous protocols.
Trommelen J, Fuchs CJ, Beelen M, Lenaerts K, Jeukendrup AE, Cermak NM, van Loon LJ (2017): Fructose and sucrose intake increase exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during exercise	Crossover, stable isotope. 10 trained male cyclists, VO2peak 65 ± 2. Not a sucrose-alone versus free glucose-plus-fructose comparison. Moderate intensity. Men only. Open access PMC5331598.
Gonzalez JT, Fuchs CJ, Smith FE, et al. (2015): Ingestion of glucose or sucrose prevents liver but not muscle glycogen depletion during prolonged exercise in trained cyclists	Crossover with 13C-MRS. 14 cyclists; 4 also did water. Abstract-only. Moderate intensity. Water arm n=4.
Wilson PB (2026): A narrative review of the high-carbohydrate fueling revolution (≥100 g/h) in the professional peloton	Narrative review; open full text read for key points and ACSM quotation. Professional cycling context; synthesises laboratory trials. Narrative review. Multi-day benefit is theoretical/observational, not an RCT.
Fuchs CJ, Veeraiah P, Hermans WJH, et al. (2025): Carbohydrate intake of 10 g/kg rapidly replenishes liver, but not muscle glycogen, during 12 h of recovery in well-trained cyclists	Crossover with 13C-MRS and biopsies. 12 well-trained male cyclists, VO2peak 67 ± 5, Wmax 5.8 ± 0.7 W/kg. Abstract-only. Men. Severe depletion model.
Roberts SSH et al. (2019): Extended Sleep Maintains Endurance Performance Better than Normal or Restricted Sleep	Randomised crossover. 9 endurance cyclists/triathletes. n=9. Acute repeated TT, not training adaptation. Abstract-only.
Walsh NP et al. (2021): Sleep and the athlete: narrative review and 2021 expert consensus recommendations	Narrative review and expert consensus. Elite athletes; consensus panel. Few female experimental data; not a meta-analysis of cycling.
McDonald P et al. (2025): Influence of Exercise Heat Acclimation Protocol Characteristics on Adaptation Kinetics	Bayesian meta-regression. 211 papers. Heat-performance outcomes. Hb-mass slope is not a daily prescription.
Sim M et al. (2019): Iron considerations for the athlete: a narrative review	Narrative review. Athlete cohorts. Prevalence depends on cut-off and cohort.
Llanos-Lagos C, Ramirez-Campillo R, Saez de Villarreal E (2026): Heavy strength training effects on physiological determinants of endurance cyclist performance: a systematic review with meta-analysis	Systematic review with meta-analysis of controlled trials. 262 endurance cyclists (60 women); mean baseline VO2max 61.25 ml/kg/min. Low certainty from risk of bias and imprecision; some non-random allocation; no significant moderators so dose is not optimised. Efficiency text point +0.353 with CI -0.619 to -0.088 conflicts with the negative Figure 3 pool; do not treat that pair as one estimate.
Quittmann OJ; Piehl MA (2026): The 3-min all-out test in cycling: a systematic review and meta-analysis on its reliability and validity	Systematic review and meta-analysis. 20 studies, N=284, mostly small and male, 2006-2025. Full text. Heterogeneous protocols. Prediction intervals wide.
Saw AE; Main LC; Gastin PB (2016): Monitoring the athlete training response: subjective self-reported measures trump commonly used objective measures	Systematic review. 54 studies of athletes in training. Full text consulted. Not cycling-specific. Many small studies.

Full source annotations

Primary group headings organize retrieval, not exclusive scientific ownership. Shared sources link to every relevant chapter.

Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY01 — Endurance exercise performance: the physiology of champions

Joyner MJ, Coyle EF; 2008. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2007.143834. PMID: 17901124. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Champion endurance athletes; synthesis, not a new cohort. - Verified extraction: Performance VO2 is VO2max times sustainable fraction; efficiency converts that VO2 into speed or power. Genetic and motivational factors also decide who becomes a champion. - Limitations: Review, not a training trial. Does not prescribe amateur hours. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity - Retrieval routes: source 1

PHY02 — Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance

Bassett DR, Howley ET; 2000. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1097/00005768-200001000-00012. PMID: 10647532. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Exercising humans; endurance performance synthesis. - Verified extraction: VO2max limited primarily by oxygen delivery. Mitochondrial adaptations improve submaximal endurance by raising fat oxidation and lowering lactate at a given VO2. LT speed integrates VO2max, economy and fractional utilization. - Limitations: Review. Training evidence for a-vO2 difference cited is older than Montero 2015. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY03 — Factors limiting maximal performance in humans

di Prampero PE; 2003. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-003-0926-z. PMID: 12910345. - Design / duration: Theoretical model; n/a. - Population / baseline: Model of track running; O2 conductance equation. - Verified extraction: For two-leg exercise, circulatory O2 transport estimated as about 75% of post-lung resistance to VO2max. Mitochondrial capacity and diffusion share the rest. - Limitations: Model, not a cyclist intervention. Percentages are theoretical. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY04 — Biology of VO2max: looking under the physiology lamp

Lundby C, Montero D, Joyner M; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/apha.12827. PMID: 27888580. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Training and athlete cross-sections. - Verified extraction: Training-induced VO2max increases are largely via red-cell volume expansion and stroke volume. Previously untrained people respond if dose is sufficient. - Limitations: Review. Does not quantify 7-12 h amateur gains. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY05 — Endurance training and VO2max: role of maximal cardiac output and oxygen extraction

Montero D, Diaz-Canestro C, Lundby C; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000000640. PMID: 25680086. - Design / duration: Systematic review and data pooling; 5 to 12.9 weeks. - Population / baseline: 13 studies, 130 untrained or moderately trained healthy young adults, mean age 22-28. - Verified extraction: VO2max SMD 0.75. Conclusion in retrieved abstract: improvement associated with increase in maximal cardiac output, not arteriovenous O2 difference. Exact Qmax SMD truncated in first Europe PMC pull; conclusion verified. - Limitations: Not well-trained cyclists. Small evidence base. Some effect sizes not fully captured in the retrieved abstract fragment. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY06 — Haematological rather than skeletal muscle adaptations contribute to the increase in peak oxygen uptake induced by moderate endurance training

Montero D, Cathomen A, Jacobs RA, et al.; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/jp270250. PMID: 26282186. - Design / duration: Controlled training plus phlebotomy; 6 weeks, 3-4 sessions/week. - Population / baseline: 16 untrained healthy men, age 25±4, VO2peak 3.5±0.5 L/min. - Verified extraction: VO2peak +9±8%, Qpeak +7±6%, RBCV +8±4%, plasma volume +4±6%, Hb mass +6±5%, capillary-to-fibre +18±16%, mitochondrial volume density +43±30%. Phlebotomy returning RBCV to baseline reduced VO2peak -7±7% and Qpeak -10±7%. OXPHOS unchanged. - Limitations: Untrained men. Moderate endurance training, not a cyclist TID comparison. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY07 — Determinants of maximal oxygen uptake in highly trained females and males

Skattebo O, Martin-Rincon M, Rud B, et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/jp289218. PMID: 40974561. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional invasive mechanistic study; acute maximal test. - Population / baseline: 23 highly trained cyclists and triathletes, 10 women, age 29±6. - Verified extraction: Maximal cardiac output 22±3 vs 30±3 L/min. Leg O2 extraction 91±3% vs 92±3%, similar mitochondria and capillaries. Women had ~10% lower Hb concentration and lower LBM-normalised O2 delivery and VO2max. - Limitations: Cross-sectional, not a training intervention. Small female n. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY08 — A review of central and peripheral limitations to endurance exercise performance on the road to the Milano-Cortina 2026 Olympics

Skattebo O, Martin-Rincon M, Calbet JAL, Hallen J, Holmberg HC; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.70266. PMID: 41845944. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Elite endurance athletes, winter-sport emphasis. - Verified extraction: Systemic O2 delivery is the primary limiter of VO2max in elite athletes. Mitochondrial density and capillarisation support fractional utilization and extraction, which may exceed 95% in some elite skiers. Most fractional-utilization values in the literature are estimates. - Limitations: First publication 2026-03-01, before cutoff. Scarce invasive female data. Not a cycling dose trial. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY09 — The effect of endurance training on parameters of aerobic fitness

Jones AM, Carter H; 2000. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.2165/00007256-200029060-00001. PMID: 10870864. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Endurance athletes. - Verified extraction: Key aerobic parameters: VO2max, economy, lactate/ventilatory threshold, VO2 kinetics; related markers include velocity at VO2max and MLSS or critical power. - Limitations: Review from 2000. Does not give amateur hour prescriptions. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY10 — The maximal metabolic steady state: redefining the gold standard

Jones AM, Burnley M, Black MI, Poole DC, Vanhatalo A; 2019. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14098. PMID: 31124324. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Exercise physiology synthesis. - Verified extraction: MLSS as commonly measured underestimates the maximal metabolic steady state. CP is the heavy-severe boundary. Exercise at CP is typically sustainable for about 20-30 min. - Limitations: Argumentative review. Sustainability range is typical, not a universal constant. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: PHY10, DUR08. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY11 — Relative proximity of critical power and metabolic/ventilatory thresholds: systematic review and meta-analysis

Galan-Rioja MA, Gonzalez-Mohino F, Poole DC, Gonzalez-Rave JM; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-020-01314-8. PMID: 32613479. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; n/a cross-sectional comparisons. - Population / baseline: 9 studies, 104 participants. - Verified extraction: Pooled r=0.73 between CP and thresholds. VT1 underestimated CP by ~30%, MLSS by ~11%, RCP overestimated by ~6%, VT2 by ~21%. CP and VT2 correlation not significant in subgroup. - Limitations: Small study set. Inclusion wording required RCTs, which is an odd filter for correlation studies. Offsets are not individual constants. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1 - Citation aliases: PHY11, DUR07. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY12 — Power-duration relationship: physiology, fatigue, and the limits of human performance

Burnley M, Jones AM; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2016.1249524. PMID: 27806677. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Human power-duration physiology. - Verified extraction: Only a small power range is sustainable, below CP. Moderate domain fatigue is slow and largely central; heavy domain involves glycogen-related fatigue; severe domain loses metabolic homeostasis and VO2 rises toward max. W-prime is finite work above CP. - Limitations: Review. W-prime is model-dependent. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY13 — The anaerobic threshold: 50+ years of controversy

Poole DC, Rossiter HB, Brooks GA, Gladden LB; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/jp279963. PMID: 33112439. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Exercise physiology. - Verified extraction: Lactate rise is not evidence of muscle anoxia. The threshold for a sustained non-oxidative contribution is critical power, often far above the lactate threshold. - Limitations: Conceptual review. Does not validate a zone chart. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY14 — Physiological determinants of endurance exercise performance

Coyle EF; 1999. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/S1440-2440(99)80172-8. PMID: 10668757. - Design / duration: Narrative review / model; events of 30 min to 4 h. - Population / baseline: Endurance athletes. - Verified extraction: Endurance model centres on lactate-threshold velocity and gross mechanical efficiency. At 80 rpm, efficiency positively related to type I fibre composition. Oxygen and blood-glucose availability also influence performance. - Limitations: 1999 synthesis. Carbohydrate 30-60 g/h is historical relative to current fueling evidence and is not used as a prescription here. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY15 — The effects of training on gross efficiency in cycling: a review

Hopker J, Passfield L, Coleman D, Jobson S, Edwards L, Carter H; 2009. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1055/s-0029-1237712. PMID: 19941249. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Cyclists, cross-sectional and training studies. - Verified extraction: Authors conclude well-controlled studies show training can raise gross efficiency; many null cross-sectional comparisons were methodologically weak. Mechanisms remain undetermined. - Limitations: Review. Specific effect sizes not in the retrieved abstract. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY16 — Inverse relationship between VO2max and gross efficiency

Hopker J, Coleman D, Jobson SA, Passfield L; 2012. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1055/s-0032-1304640. PMID: 22562732. - Design / duration: Two training experiments; season and 12 weeks. - Population / baseline: Experiment 1: 14 trained cyclists across a season. Experiment 2: 29 trained cyclists, 12 weeks. - Verified extraction: Training raised gross efficiency but not VO2max. Within-subject inverse correlation r=-0.32 across the season and r=-0.78 in the high-intensity group over the first 6 weeks. - Limitations: Self-coached season in experiment 1. Not a randomized intensity-percentage trial. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY17 — Prolonged constant load cycling exercise is associated with reduced gross efficiency and increased muscle oxygen uptake

Hopker JG, O'Grady C, Pageaux B; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.12673. PMID: 26993076. - Design / duration: Acute repeated-measures; 2 h at 60% of maximal minute power. - Population / baseline: 14 well-trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: Gross efficiency was tracked at 5, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min during prolonged constant-load cycling. Title and abstract report reduced gross efficiency with increased muscle oxygen uptake. Magnitude of the GE drop was truncated in the retrieved abstract and is not stated. - Limitations: Acute, not a training effect. 60% of maximal minute power is not 60% FTP. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY18 — Determinants of time trial performance and maximal incremental exercise in highly trained endurance athletes

Jacobs RA, Rasmussen P, Siebenmann C, et al.; 2011. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00625.2011. PMID: 21885805. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional multivariate; 26 km time trial and incremental test. - Population / baseline: 16 highly trained cyclists; 150 variables reduced to 10 factors. - Verified extraction: Time-trial power associated with vastus lateralis oxidative phosphorylation capacity, submaximal lactate, and maximal leg oxygenation, accounting for 78% of variance. Maximal power associated with Hb mass, VO2max and leg oxygenation. - Limitations: Small n, large predictor set, overfitting risk. Not a training trial. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY19 — The importance of durability in the physiological profiling of endurance athletes

Maunder E, Seiler S, Mildenhall MJ, Kilding AE, Plews DJ; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01459-0. PMID: 33886100. - Design / duration: Narrative review with field illustration; n/a. - Population / baseline: Endurance athletes. - Verified extraction: Physiological profiling variables change during prolonged exercise. Durability defined as timing and magnitude of that deterioration. Fresh profiles mislead intensity regulation and performance prediction if durability is ignored. - Limitations: Conceptual. Does not prove a training method. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1 - Citation aliases: PHY19, DUR48. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY20 — The relationship between training characteristics and durability in professional cyclists across a competitive season

Spragg J, Leo P, Swart J; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2022.2049886. PMID: 35239466. - Design / duration: Observational season analysis; competitive season, early/mid/late. - Population / baseline: 30 male U23 professional cyclists, VO2max 73.8±2.5, CP 5.48±0.38 W/kg. - Verified extraction: Fatigued power profile (after 2000 kJ) varied more across the season than the fresh profile. Time below VT1 correlated with fatigued 5-min (r=0.43, p=0.018) and 12-min power (r=0.376, p=0.04). A shift toward polarized distribution correlated with fatigued 12-min power (r=0.414, p=0.023). - Limitations: Observational, one level of rider, not a randomized volume trial. Abstract punctuation was messy; correlations cited are those explicitly recoverable. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1 - Citation aliases: PHY20, DUR42. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY21 — Power output at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition decreases in a non-linear fashion during prolonged exercise

Gallo G, Faelli EL, Ruggeri P, et al.; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05440-3. PMID: 38483635. - Design / duration: Acute prolonged cycling; to task failure, 234±66 min. - Population / baseline: 12 trained cyclists, age 40±8, VO2peak 52.3±5.2. - Verified extraction: VT1 power fell as a second-order polynomial in 11 of 12. Time to 5% VT1 drop 139±78 min correlated with time to failure (rs=0.676). Related to rested fat-oxidation rates. - Limitations: Acute, not a training study. Recreationally trained rather than WorldTour. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY22 — Training characteristics and power profile of professional U23 cyclists throughout a competitive season

Leo P, Spragg J, Simon D, Lawley JS, Mujika I; 2020. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/sports8120167. PMID: 33348618. - Design / duration: Observational season monitoring; one season in four calendar periods. - Population / baseline: 30 male U23 professionals, age 20.0±1.0, VO2max 73.7±2.5. - Verified extraction: Period hours: pre 167±46, early 202±28, mid 219±26, late 150±36. VT1 256±22 W, VT2 367±38 W, CP 382±33 W, W-prime 17.8±3.6 kJ. Season HR distribution about 17-19% below VT1, 51-63% between thresholds, 8-9% above VT2. - Limitations: One team. Includes racing. Weekly hours in the brief are derived from calendar windows, not reported by the paper. Heart-rate zones can misclassify intensity. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity - Retrieval routes: source 1

PHY23 — Effects of exercise training on mitochondrial and capillary growth in human skeletal muscle: a systematic review and meta-regression

Molmen KS, Almquist NW, Skattebo O; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-024-02120-2. PMID: 39390310. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-regression; search to 2 February 2022; interventions of varying weeks. - Population / baseline: 5973 participants; 353 mitochondrial and 131 capillary articles. Well-trained mean VO2max 62.2±6.7, few groups, 97% men. - Verified extraction: Adjusted mitochondrial content +23±5% ET, +27±5% HIT, +27±7% SIT. Per hour SIT ~3.9x ET and HIT ~1.7x ET. Frequency 6>4>2 sessions/week. Well-trained pooled mito estimate +6.6±6.5% (P=0.046). Per-hour endurance-training estimate in that stratum was not statistically distinguished from zero (P=0.933); imprecise, not proof that extra easy hours cannot change mitochondria. Capillaries per fibre similar across modalities and mostly <4 weeks; not clear in well-trained. Load = volume x intensity. - Limitations: ET bin is everything below VT2, not Zone 2. Mostly untrained. Not cycling performance. No newer meta-analysis found through 2026-10-02. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

PHY24 — Training-induced changes in mitochondrial content and respiratory function in human skeletal muscle

Granata C, Jamnick NA, Bishop DJ; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-018-0936-y. PMID: 29934848. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Human training studies. - Verified extraction: Volume may be critical for mitochondrial content; relative intensity for respiratory function. Content and function can dissociate. Acute signalling does not guarantee training adaptation. - Limitations: Review preceding the 2025 meta-regression. Some claims are interpretive. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY25 — Physiological adaptations to interval training and the role of exercise intensity

MacInnis MJ, Gibala MJ; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/JP273196. PMID: 27748956. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Human interval and continuous training studies. - Verified extraction: Work-matched comparisons suggest greater mitochondrial content after HIIT than MICT. SIT can match MICT mitochondrial gains at lower volume. HIIT generally increases VO2max more than MICT for a given volume. Intensity-duration-frequency interactions not thoroughly explored. - Limitations: Review. Not cyclist-only. Does not establish a Zone 2 pathway. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1 - Citation aliases: PHY25, INT32. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY26 — Superior mitochondrial adaptations in human skeletal muscle after interval compared to continuous single-leg cycling matched for total work

MacInnis MJ, Zacharewicz E, Martin BJ, et al.; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/jp272570. PMID: 27396440. - Design / duration: Within-subject training; 6 sessions over 2 weeks. - Population / baseline: 10 young active men, single-leg cycling. - Verified extraction: HIIT (4x5 min at 65% single-leg Wpeak) increased citrate synthase and mitochondrial respiration more than work- and duration-matched continuous cycling at 50% Wpeak. - Limitations: Active men, not trained cyclists. Single-leg model. Short. Abstract truncated before exact percent changes. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY27 — Human skeletal muscle mitochondrial responses to single-leg intermittent or continuous cycle exercise training matched for absolute intensity and total work

Skelly LE, MacInnis MJ, Bostad W, et al.; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.14332. PMID: 36779702. - Design / duration: Within-subject training; 12 sessions over 4 weeks. - Population / baseline: 10 young healthy adults, 5 women. - Verified extraction: When absolute intensity, time and volume were matched, interval pattern did not produce greater mitochondrial-content biomarkers than continuous cycling. Abstract truncated before exact null statistics. - Limitations: Not trained cyclists. Intensity was moderate (~50% single-leg Wpeak), so this does not refute higher-intensity advantages. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY28 — The additional effect of training above the maximal metabolic steady state on VO2peak, Wpeak and time-trial performance in endurance-trained athletes

Rosenblat MA, Arnold J, Nelson H, Watt J, Seiler S; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01924-y. PMID: 37737543. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; 2-12 weeks. - Population / baseline: 14 studies, 171 recreational and 128 competitive endurance athletes, VO2peak 38-68. - Verified extraction: Training above MMSS added 2.5 mL/kg/min (95% CI 1.4-3.6) to VO2peak versus training only below MMSS. No intensity-specific effect concluded for Wpeak or time trial, partly from smaller samples. - Limitations: Mixed sports. Not a volume-dose trial. TT evidence underpowered by the authors' own statement. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY29 — The effect of training distribution, duration, and volume on VO2max and performance in trained cyclists: a systematic review, multilevel meta-analysis, and multivariate meta-regression

Cove B, Chalmers S, Nelson MJ, Anderson M, Bennett H; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2024.12.005. PMID: 39788807. - Design / duration: Multilevel meta-analysis and meta-regression; interventions >4 weeks; database search closed 23 October 2023; 2025 is the journal issue year. - Population / baseline: Trained cyclists. Abstract: 41 studies, 81 groups, 797 participants. Inclusion was sex-specific Tier 3 study-mean VO2max (men >=59, women >=54.4 mL/kg/min), not every participant >=59.. - Verified extraction: Abstract point estimates only: training improved VO2max (g=0.42) and time-trial performance (g=0.39); no significant between-model difference. Confidence intervals are not copied because abstract and body intervals disagree. Longer duration was positively associated with both outcomes. No detected association of weekly or total volume with either outcome in the subsets that reported volume. - Limitations: POL meant LIT or habitual training plus intervals shorter than 5 min above MLSS or at the highest sustainable intensity, not a measured 80/20 or below-LT1 distribution. Intervals longer than 5 min were non-polarized. Counts are internally inconsistent (abstract 41 studies; discussion 44; 23 randomized plus 21 non-randomized). Do not use body confidence intervals. Do not copy the reported weekly volume 4.9 plus or minus 7.3 h (range 2.6-14.3): that SD is implausible for the range. Certainty low. Null volume regression is not a causal optimum or proof that extra hours cannot help. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Distribution, periodization and recovery, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3, source 4 - Citation aliases: PHY29, TID08, DUR20. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY30 — Best-practice training characteristics within Olympic endurance sports as described by Norwegian world-class coaches

Sandbakk O, Tonnessen E, Sandbakk SB, Losnegard T, Seiler S, Haugen T; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1186/s40798-025-00848-3. PMID: 40278987. - Design / duration: Qualitative multiple-case study; coach-described annual cycle; data collection 2022; published 2025-04-25. - Population / baseline: 12 male Norwegian world-class coaches; one road-cycling coach. Medal record >380 international medals across sports. - Verified extraction: Road cycling high-load preparation weeks described as 7-10 sessions, 20-24 h total, 19-23 h endurance, 2-3 intensive days, 90-180 min intensive. Competition weeks 7-9 sessions, 18-22 h. One daily ride of 3-6 h. One-versus-two sessions per day untested. Common emphasis on high LIT volume and 2-3 key days. - Limitations: One cycling informant. Coach report, not a trial. Zone scale is not Coggan or the three-zone research model. 30 h quote in the paper is not the road-cycling row. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: PHY30, TID35. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY31 — What is best practice for training intensity and duration distribution in endurance athletes?

Seiler S; 2010. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.5.3.276. PMID: 20861519. - Design / duration: Narrative synthesis of descriptive and intensification studies; n/a. - Population / baseline: National/international endurance athletes, typically 10-13 sessions/week. - Verified extraction: Successful athletes converge near 80% low-intensity sessions and ~20% sessions dominated by high-intensity work. Intensification studies in the already well trained do not convincingly show long-term gains from more HIT emphasis. - Limitations: Review/synthesis. Not an interval-format trial. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Distribution, periodization and recovery, VO₂-focused intervals, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3 - Citation aliases: PHY31, TID02, INT45, DUR24. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY32 — Quantifying training intensity distribution in elite endurance athletes: is there evidence for an optimal distribution?

Seiler KS, Kjerland GO; 2006. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2004.00418.x. PMID: 16430681. - Design / duration: Observational training quantification; 32 days, 384 sessions. - Population / baseline: 11 male nationally competitive junior cross-country skiers. - Verified extraction: Heart-rate distribution about 75% zone 1, 8% zone 2, 17% zone 3, using VT1 and VT2. Session RPE similar. Athletes performed little training at lactate-threshold intensity. - Limitations: Skiers, not cyclists. Descriptive, not an optimum trial. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1 - Citation aliases: PHY32, TID01. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY33 — Autonomic recovery after exercise in trained athletes: intensity and duration effects

Seiler S, Haugen O, Kuffel E; 2007. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e318060f17d. PMID: 17762370. - Design / duration: Acute crossover; single sessions; HRV followed 4 h. - Population / baseline: 9 highly trained male runners (VO2max 72±5, 14±3 h/week) and 8 trained runners (VO2max 60±5, 7±1 h/week). - Verified extraction: In highly trained runners, HRV recovered in 5-10 min after 60 or 120 min below VT1. Threshold and above-VT2 sessions delayed recovery to about 30 min, similarly. Less-trained runners were slower after the same intervals (>=90 min). - Limitations: Runners, small n, acute autonomic marker, no 4 h arm, not an adaptation trial. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1 - Citation aliases: PHY33, TID25. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY34 — The road to gold: training and peaking characteristics in the year prior to a gold medal endurance performance

Tonnessen E, Sylta O, Haugen TA, Hem E, Svendsen IS, Seiler S; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0101796. PMID: 25019608. - Design / duration: Retrospective training logs; 1 year before career-best competition. - Population / baseline: 11 elite XC skiers and biathletes, 4 men VO2max 85±5, 7 women 73±3. - Verified extraction: About 800 h and 500 sessions per year; ~500 h sport-specific. About 90% of aerobic time below the first lactate threshold. About 23% of sessions categorized as HIT. HIT volume stayed fairly stable; total volume followed traditional periodization. - Limitations: Not cyclists. Self-report. 800 h/year is not a weekly peak. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY35 — Training characteristics of male and female professional road cyclists: a 4-year retrospective analysis

van Erp T, Sanders D, de Koning JJ; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0320. PMID: 31722298. - Design / duration: Retrospective observational; multi-year team monitoring. - Population / baseline: 20 male and 10 female professional cyclists, 4 years. - Verified extraction: Men had higher distance, duration, kilojoules and mean power (d=0.44-1.98) and more time in low-intensity zones. Session TSS/TRIMP differences were trivial (d=0.07-0.12). Load per kilometre was moderately higher in women (d=0.67-0.76). Women appeared to compensate lower volume with higher intensity. - Limitations: Abstract does not report weekly hours. One professional programme. Not an experiment. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Distribution, periodization and recovery, Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: PHY35, TID16, MON21. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY36 — Differences in training characteristics between junior, under-23 and professional cyclists

Gallo G, Leo P, March MM, et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1055/a-1847-5414. PMID: 35533684. - Design / duration: Retrospective observational; one competitive season. - Population / baseline: 30 male cyclists, junior, U23 and professional, 2019 season. - Verified extraction: Retrieved abstract: professional session duration 2.6±0.3 h versus U23 2.2±0.3 h. Juniors spent more time in medium and high heart-rate zones than U23 and professionals. Other load figures were truncated and are not used. - Limitations: Abstract incomplete. Not weekly hours. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY37 — Training, performance, and physiological predictors of a successful elite senior career in junior competitive road cyclists

Svendsen IS, Tonnessen E, Tjelta LI, Orn S; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2017-0824. PMID: 29745739. - Design / duration: Retrospective cohort; junior competition exposure. - Population / baseline: 80 male cyclists at age 18, later classified at age 23: 9 WorldTour, 24 continental, 26 club, 21 retired. - Verified extraction: Future WorldTour riders competed more at age 18 (91.5±19.1 h) than club (62.8±21.8 h) or retired riders (61.8±23.4 h). Abstract conclusion mentions high training and competition volume; the verified numeric result is competition hours. - Limitations: Competition hours, not a controlled training-volume effect. Small WorldTour n. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY38 — A critical evaluation of current methods for exercise prescription in women and men

Iannetta D, Inglis EC, Mattu AT, et al.; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002147. PMID: 31479001. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional laboratory comparison; ramp plus 30-min constant-load trials. - Population / baseline: 100 adults, 46 women, 54 men; VO2max 3.06±0.41 and 4.10±0.56 L/min. - Verified extraction: LT at 45-74% VO2max and MLSS at 69-96% VO2max. Fixed %VO2max, %WRpeak and %HRmax scattered individuals across domains. - Limitations: Not specifically trained cyclists. Shows prescription error, not a training outcome. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY39 — Variability in exercise tolerance and physiological responses to exercise prescribed relative to physiological thresholds and to maximum oxygen uptake

Meyler S, Bottoms L, Wellsted D, Muniz-Pumares D; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/ep090878. PMID: 36710454. - Design / duration: Repeated-measures laboratory; acute bouts. - Population / baseline: 10 individuals. - Verified extraction: Threshold-based prescription, especially critical power, reduced variability versus fixed %VO2max. All completed heavy-threshold bouts; only 30% completed heavy bouts prescribed by %VO2max, and 70% of those work rates exceeded CP. - Limitations: Small n. Acute tolerance, not longitudinal adaptation. Population training status not fully specified in the retrieved abstract. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity - Retrieval routes: source 1

PHY40 — Functional threshold power in cyclists: validity of the concept and physiological responses

Borszcz FK, Tramontin AF, Bossi AH, Carminatti LJ, Costa VP; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1055/s-0044-101546. PMID: 29801189. - Design / duration: Validity study; incremental, 20- and 60-min trials, time to exhaustion. - Population / baseline: 23 trained male cyclists. - Verified extraction: FTP20, FTP60 and individual anaerobic threshold not different on average, large correlations, but limits of agreement from about -40 to +32 W up to -62 to +60 W. Time to exhaustion at FTP20 50.9±15.7 min. - Limitations: Men only. IAT is not MLSS or CP. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Threshold, durability and long rides, Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3 - Citation aliases: PHY40, DUR01, MON24. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY41 — Is the functional threshold power interchangeable with the maximal lactate steady state in trained cyclists?

Borszcz FK, Tramontin AF, Costa VP; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0572. PMID: 30676826. - Design / duration: Validity study; incremental, FTP, constant-load MLSS series. - Population / baseline: 15 cyclists, 7 trained and 8 well trained, VO2max 62.3±6.4, MAP 329±30 W. - Verified extraction: FTP vs MLSS bias 1.4%±9.2% limits of agreement, TEE 4.7%, r=0.91. Agreement tighter in well-trained than trained riders. - Limitations: Small n. Group validity is not individual interchangeability. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Threshold, durability and long rides, Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: PHY41, DUR02, MON26. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY42 — Is the functional threshold power a valid surrogate of the lactate threshold?

Valenzuela PL, Morales JS, Foster C, Lucia A, de la Villa P; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0008. PMID: 29745765. - Design / duration: Validity study; incremental plus 20-min trial. - Population / baseline: 20 male cyclists split by fitness; recreational vs higher peak power. - Verified extraction: Overall FTP 240±35 W vs LT 246±24 W, r=0.95, limits of agreement -2.4%±11.5%. Authors: better estimate in trained than recreational cyclists, where FTP may underestimate LT. - Limitations: Abstract truncated on the exact subgroup split. Small n. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Threshold, durability and long rides, Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: PHY42, DUR03, MON25. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY43 — Assessment of metabolic flexibility by means of measuring blood lactate, fat, and carbohydrate oxidation responses to exercise in professional endurance athletes and less-fit individuals

San-Millan I, Brooks GA; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0751-x. PMID: 28623613. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional comparison; acute exercise tests. - Population / baseline: Professional endurance athletes, moderately active individuals, and metabolic-syndrome patients. - Verified extraction: Fat oxidation higher and blood lactate lower in professionals than in moderately active and metabolic-syndrome groups. Fat oxidation and lactate inversely correlated. Not a Zone 2 training trial. - Limitations: Cross-sectional. Abstract truncated before all statistics. Does not isolate a training wattage. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY44 — Lactate threshold concepts: how valid are they?

Faude O, Kindermann W, Meyer T; 2009. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.2165/00007256-200939060-00003. PMID: 19453206. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Endurance performance diagnosis. - Verified extraction: Lactate thresholds can index endurance capacity but methods differ, and a fixed lactate concentration is not an individual threshold. Two-threshold aerobic-anaerobic transition framework is useful if the method is stated. - Limitations: Review. Abstract truncated before a single recommended protocol. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY45 — Influence of exercise intensity and duration on biochemical adaptations in skeletal muscle

Dudley GA, Abraham WM, Terjung RL; 1982. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/jappl.1982.53.4.844. PMID: 6295989. - Design / duration: Animal dose-response; 8 weeks, 5 days/week. - Population / baseline: Rats, 19 treadmill protocols. - Verified extraction: Cytochrome c rose with daily duration toward an intensity-dependent asymptote. Higher intensity reached the plateau in less daily time. Fast-twitch white fibres needed higher intensity. - Limitations: Rats. Not transferable as a human FTP percentage. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY46 — No effect of a graded training program on the number of running-related injuries in novice runners

Buist I, Bredeweg SW, van Mechelen W, et al.; 2008. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1177/0363546507307505. PMID: 17940147. - Design / duration: Randomized controlled trial; 13-week graded programme vs 8-week standard. - Population / baseline: 532 novice runners preparing for a 4-mile event. - Verified extraction: 10% rule programme did not reduce injuries: 20.8% vs 20.3%, P=0.90. - Limitations: Novice runners, not cyclists. Does not prove all progression rates are equal. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY47 — Excessive progression in weekly running distance and risk of running-related injuries

Nielsen RO, Parner ET, Nohr EA, Sorensen H, Lind M, Rasmussen S; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.2519/jospt.2014.5164. PMID: 25155475. - Design / duration: Prospective cohort; 1 year. - Population / baseline: 874 healthy novice runners. - Verified extraction: No statistically significant overall injury-rate difference across <10%, 10-30% and >30% weekly distance progression. Some distance-related injuries higher above 30%. Abstract truncated before all injury-specific estimates. - Limitations: Novice runners. Exploratory. Not a cycling rule. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY48 — Is there evidence for an association between changes in training load and running-related injuries? A systematic review

Damsted C, Glad S, Nielsen RO, Sorensen H, Malisoux L; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.26603/ijspt20180931. PMID: 30534459. - Design / duration: Systematic review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Runners 18-65; 4 eligible articles. - Verified extraction: Three of four articles found some association between load increases and running injury. Evidence base is small. - Limitations: Running only. Does not validate a percentage rule. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY49 — Acute:chronic workload ratio: conceptual issues and fundamental pitfalls

Impellizzeri FM, Tenan MS, Kempton T, Novak A, Coutts AJ; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0864. PMID: 32502973. - Design / duration: Methodological critique; n/a. - Population / baseline: Training-load injury literature. - Verified extraction: No evidence supports using ACWR to manage training or reduce injury. Ratio properties and missing causal evidence make it unsuitable. - Limitations: Critique, not a cyclist trial. Does not say load spikes are harmless. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1 - Citation aliases: PHY49, MON13. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY50 — How much is too much? (Part 1) IOC consensus statement on load in sport and risk of injury

Soligard T et al.; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2016-096581. PMID: 27535989. - Design / duration: IOC consensus; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athletes generally. - Verified extraction: Poor load management, including rapid changes, calendar congestion, psychological load, and travel, is a major injury-risk theme. Does not validate a CTL cut-off. - Limitations: Abstract. Not cycling-specific. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1 - Citation aliases: PHY50, MON14. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY51 — How much is too much? (Part 2) IOC consensus statement on load in sport and risk of illness

Schwellnus M, Soligard T, Alonso JM, et al.; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2016-096572. PMID: 27535991. - Design / duration: Consensus statement; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athletes in elite sport. - Verified extraction: Inappropriate load management is a risk factor for illness and overtraining syndrome. Guidelines are principles, not hour targets. - Limitations: Consensus. Not a cycling RCT. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1 - Citation aliases: PHY51, MON15. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY52 — Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of the overtraining syndrome: joint consensus statement

Meeusen R, Duclos M, Foster C, et al.; 2013. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e318279a10a. PMID: 23247672. - Design / duration: Consensus statement; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athletes. - Verified extraction: Functional overreaching can precede supercompensation; non-functional overreaching and overtraining syndrome reflect inadequate recovery. No single diagnostic marker. Exclude illness and low energy availability. - Limitations: Consensus. Does not define a cycling volume ceiling. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Distribution, periodization and recovery, Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: PHY52, TID40, MON57. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY53 — Blood volume: its adaptation to endurance training

Convertino VA; 1991. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/00005768-199112000-00004. PMID: 1798375. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Endurance-training literature of the time. - Verified extraction: Plasma volume accounts for nearly all exercise-induced hypervolemia for about 2-4 weeks; thereafter expansion may be shared equally with red-cell volume. - Limitations: 1991 review. Not a modern CO-rebreathing cyclist cohort. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY54 — The influence of exercise volume and posture on exercise-induced plasma volume expansion

Nelson WB, Walker JM, Hansen C, et al.; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.14814/phy2.15601. PMID: 36802178. - Design / duration: Acute crossover; 24 h after interval sessions. - Population / baseline: 10 subjects per comparison. - Verified extraction: Plasma volume +7.3±4.4% after treadmill and +6.3±3.5% after cycle intervals. Four, six and eight intervals produced similar expansion (6.6±4.0%, 4.7±2.6%, 4.2±5.6%). - Limitations: Acute, not training adaptation. Not trained cyclists specified in the retrieved abstract. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY55 — Heavy-, severe-, and extreme-, but not moderate-intensity exercise increase VO2max and thresholds after 6 wk of training

Inglis EC, Iannetta D, Rasica L, et al.; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000003406. PMID: 38376995. - Design / duration: Randomized six-group training trial; 6 weeks, 3 sessions/week. - Population / baseline: 84 young healthy adults, 42 women and 42 men, 14 per group. Not described as trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: Versus control VO2max change 0.1±1.2 mL/kg/min, moderate-domain change 1.8±2.7 was not statistically different from control, nor was the estimated lactate-threshold change. Lower heavy 3.3±2.4, upper heavy 5.4±2.3, severe HIIT 6.2±2.8 and sprint 4.7±2.3 showed a between-group increase versus control. Work-matched except sprints. No clear between-group benefit is not proof of ineffectiveness. - Limitations: Untrained/recreational young adults. Not 55 vs 75% FTP. Not high-volume LIT over months. Does not prove moderate riding never adapts other qualities. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1 - Citation aliases: PHY55, INT44. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY56 — What is zone 2 training? Experts' viewpoint on definition, training methods, and expected adaptations

Sitko S, Artetxe X, Bonnevie-Svendsen M, et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2024-0303. PMID: 40010355. - Design / duration: Expert commentary; n/a; online 2025-02-26. - Population / baseline: 14 applied sport scientists and professional coaches. - Verified extraction: Consensus that zone 2 should preferably be immediately below LT1 or VT1, via continuous, variable or interval sessions. Expected central and peripheral adaptations might also occur slightly above or below that intensity. - Limitations: Opinion, not a trial. Abstract does not state a minimum session duration or an FTP percentage. Do not treat panel preference as experimental proof. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: PHY56, DUR23. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY57 — Comparison of acute physiological responses between one long and two short sessions of moderate-intensity training in endurance athletes

Kjosen Talsnes R, Torvik PO, Skovereng K, Sandbakk O; 2024. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1428536. PMID: 39139482. - Design / duration: Counterbalanced crossover, acute; one day of 6x10 min vs two bouts of 3x10 min separated by 6.5 h; running. - Population / baseline: 14 male endurance athletes, VO2max 69.2±4.2. - Verified extraction: Single session produced second-half drift in HR, lactate and RPE, higher supine HR in the next hour, and higher session RPE. Second short session had lower HR and lactate than the first. Authors state training-intervention studies are still required. - Limitations: Running, not cycling. Moderate intervals, not 4 h easy riding. Acute only. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: PHY57, DUR57. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY58 — Influence of endurance training during childhood on total hemoglobin mass

Prommer N, Wachsmuth N, Thieme I, et al.; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00251. PMID: 29618981. - Design / duration: Longitudinal plus cross-sectional; up to 3.5 years. - Population / baseline: 17 endurance-trained children aged 9.7±1.3 followed up to 3.5 years; 18 untrained controls. - Verified extraction: Hb mass rose ~50% and tracked lean mass (r=0.959). Training >4 h/week associated with +25.4 g versus low-volume peers, overlapping age effects. About 3.6 mL/min VO2max per gram Hb (r=0.939). - Limitations: Children. Growth confounded. Not adult cyclists. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY59 — The Tour de France, also possible for mortals? A comparison of a recreational and a World Tour cyclist

Barranco-Gil D, Muriel X, Lucia A, Joyner MJ, DeSouza CA, Valenzuela PL; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00798.2023. PMID: 38174376. - Design / duration: Case comparison; 2023 Tour de France, 21 stages. - Population / baseline: One 58-year-old recreational man, estimated VO2max 45.4, and one WorldTour man, 80.5 mL/kg/min. - Verified extraction: Recreational rider finished in 191 h at 1.50 W/kg; professional in 87 h at 3.45 W/kg. Estimated daily energy expenditure was high in both. Not a training-volume prescription. - Limitations: n=2. Illustrates demand difference, not how to train. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity

PHY60 — Training characteristics of male and female WorldTour professional road cyclists before the competitive phase

Mateo-March M, et al.; 2026. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.5114/biolsport.2026.156234. PMID: 42220588. - Design / duration: Observational training-log comparison; 10 weeks before the first competition of the season; published 23 February 2026. - Population / baseline: 16 female (age 26±5) and 16 male (age 29±6) WorldTour road cyclists. - Verified extraction: Sessions 5.9±0.9 vs 6.0±0.9 per week. Hours 16.7±2.6 vs 19.1±2.7 (p=0.016). Week-9 peak 20.1±3.2 h and 22.5±2.8 h; week-10 taper 11.2±4.6 h and 17.7±4.9 h. More than 90% pyramidal. LIT defined as below an assumed 70% of estimated CP, not measured LT1. By power, LIT was 59.7±10.4% of time in women and 70.4±6.2% in men. - Limitations: One pre-competitive block, not a full season. LIT/MIT boundary assumed from a meta-analysis (70% CP), not individual LT1. Not a training intervention. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: PHY60, TID15. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

PHY61 — The effectiveness of polarized versus high-intensity training in moderately trained cyclists: a randomized parallel-design study

Moran-MacDonald A, Wilson S, Wu Z, Haines G, Beaupre L, Aube J, Andrews C, Jonsson N, Gurd BJ; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-026-06380-w. PMID: 42560532. - Design / duration: Randomized parallel added-volume trial; 6 weeks; first published 2026-08-06. - Population / baseline: 19 moderately trained cyclists/triathletes, 17 men; baseline VO2max not reported in the retrieved abstract. - Verified extraction: Three weekly HIIT days with versus without 240 min/week of moderate-domain cycling. Both groups reduced TT time by an average 8.5±1.2%. No time×group interaction for TT, peak work rate, LT1 or LT2 despite about 23 extra hours. No VO2max change reported in the retrieved abstract. - Limitations: Small, short, mostly male and moderately trained; total load not matched. Nonsignificance is not equivalence or a long-term dose optimum. Does not test a 6/8/10/12 h dose curve. The abstract's internally questionable exploratory eta-squared/power statement is not interpreted. - Relevant chapters: Aerobic fitness, volume and easy intensity, Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3, source 4 - Citation aliases: PHY61, TID09. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

Distribution, periodization and recovery

TID03 — From heart-rate data to training quantification: a comparison of 3 methods of training-intensity analysis

Sylta Ø, Tønnessen E, Seiler S; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2013-0298. PMID: 24408353. - Design / duration: Method comparison; ~14-day camp, 570 sessions. - Population / baseline: 29 elite XC skiers, 16 male 13 female, VO2max 76±7. - Verified extraction: Time-in-zone, session-goal, and hybrid methods are not interchangeable; conversion factors are provided. - Limitations: Altitude camp; exact zone percentages partly lost to HTML stripping in retrieval. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID04 — Six weeks of a polarized training-intensity distribution leads to greater physiological and performance adaptations than a threshold model in trained cyclists

Neal CM et al.; 2013. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00652.2012. PMID: 23264537. - Design / duration: Randomized crossover; 2 x 6 weeks, 4 weeks detraining between. - Population / baseline: 12 male cyclists. - Verified extraction: POL 6.4±1.4 h/wk 80/0/20 vs THR 7.5±2.0 h/wk 57/43/0. Greater POL gains in PPO 8±2% vs 3±1%, LT 9±3% vs 2±4%, high-intensity capacity 85±14% vs 37±14%. Both improved 40 km TT; superior 40 km effect not stated. No mitochondrial enzyme change. - Limitations: Small male sample; volumes not perfectly matched; abstract only. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: TID04, DUR18. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID05 — Polarized vs. threshold training intensity distribution on endurance sport performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

Rosenblat MA, Perrotta AS, Vicenzino B; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002618. PMID: 29863593. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; search 6 Nov 2016; interventions in included trials. - Population / baseline: Endurance-trained athletes, VO2max/peak >50, >2 years training. - Verified extraction: 4 studies qualitative, 3 in TT meta-analysis; PEDro 4-5/10. TT ES -0.66 (95% CI -1.17 to -0.15) favoring POL over THR. - Limitations: Few studies, low quality scores, not pyramidal comparison, not cyclist-only. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: TID05, DUR19. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID06 — Comparison of polarized versus other types of endurance training intensity distribution on athletes' endurance performance: a systematic review with meta-analysis

Silva Oliveira P, Boppre G, Fonseca H; 2024. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-024-02034-z. PMID: 38717713. - Design / duration: Systematic review with meta-analysis; search to 20 Oct 2022; interventions ≥4 weeks. - Population / baseline: Adults/young adults in endurance TID trials, n=437 across 17 studies. - Verified extraction: VO2peak SMD 0.24 (0.01 to 0.48); TT SMD -0.01 (-0.28 to 0.25); TTE and VT2/LT2 speed/power not different. VO2peak edge in <12 weeks (SMD 0.40, n=163) and highly trained (SMD 0.46, n=125). - Limitations: Other TIDs pooled; small VO2peak effect; RCT risk of bias some concerns. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

TID07 — Which training intensity distribution intervention will produce the greatest improvements in maximal oxygen uptake and time-trial performance in endurance athletes? A systematic review and network meta-analysis of individual participant data

Rosenblat MA et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-024-02149-3. PMID: 39888556. - Design / duration: IPD network meta-analysis; search to 11 Feb 2024; 13 studies. - Population / baseline: 348 endurance athletes (296 male, 52 female); 150 recreational, 198 competitive. - Verified extraction: Time-in-HR-zone: POL vs PYR VO2max SMD -0.06 p=0.68; TT SMD -0.05 p=0.34. No significant POL advantage vs other TIDs. Subgroup: competitive may gain more VO2max from POL and recreational from PYR (SMD -0.63, p<0.05). - Limitations: Abstract only; not cyclist-only; nonsignificance is not equivalence. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

TID10 — Impact of training intensity distribution on performance in endurance athletes

Esteve-Lanao J, Foster C, Seiler S, Lucia A; 2007. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/r-19725.1. PMID: 17685689. - Design / duration: Randomized training comparison; 5 months. - Population / baseline: 12 sub-elite runners. - Verified extraction: Zone 3 matched ~8%. More zone 1 (80.5/11.8/8.3) improved 10.4 km more than more zone 2 (66.8/24.7/8.5): -157±13 s vs -121.5±7.1 s, p=0.03. - Limitations: Runners, n=12, not cyclists. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID11 — Does polarized training improve performance in recreational runners?

Muñoz I, Seiler S, Bautista J, España J, Larumbe E, Esteve-Lanao J; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2012-0350. PMID: 23752040. - Design / duration: Randomized 10-week training; 10 weeks. - Population / baseline: 30 recreational runners. - Verified extraction: Both improved 10 km (about 5.0% vs 3.6%); difference not significant. Subset who achieved the prescribed distributions favored polarized (ES 1.29). - Limitations: Recreational runners; adherence differed from prescription. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID12 — Eleven-week preparation involving polarized intensity distribution is not superior to pyramidal distribution in national elite rowers

Treff G et al.; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00515. PMID: 28824440. - Design / duration: Controlled preparation comparison; 11 weeks. - Population / baseline: 14 national elite male rowers, VO2max 66±5. - Verified extraction: Zone 1 clamped ~93%. POL had more zone 3 (6±3% vs 2±1%). 2000 m power change ~1.5% in both, not significant; VO2max unchanged. - Limitations: Small male rower sample; little zone 2 in either arm. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID13 — Effects of 16 weeks of pyramidal and polarized training intensity distributions in well-trained endurance runners

Filipas L, Bonato M, Gallo G, Codella R; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.14101. PMID: 34792817. - Design / duration: Randomized 4-group training; 16 weeks. - Population / baseline: 60 well-trained male runners. - Verified extraction: All four periodizations improved markers. PYR then POL had the largest gains (~3% relative VO2peak, ~1.5% 5 km). - Limitations: Male runners only; small sequence difference. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID14 — Polarized training has greater impact on key endurance variables than threshold, high intensity, or high volume training

Stöggl T, Sperlich B; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2014.00033. PMID: 24550842. - Design / duration: 9-week randomised comparison of four training concepts; 9 weeks. - Population / baseline: 48 well-trained runners, cyclists, triathletes and skiers, VO2peak 62.6±7.1. - Verified extraction: Polarised training increased VO2peak by 6.8 ml/min/kg (11.7%). Abstract states threshold or high-volume did not lead to further improvements in performance-related variables. Used only as background; cyclist-specific trials and Cove 2025 carry the programming claim. - Limitations: Mixed sports; abstract truncated before all outcomes; not a cycling-only recipe trial. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: TID14, DUR60. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID17 — The effect of different high-intensity periodization models on endurance adaptations

Sylta Ø et al.; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000001007. PMID: 27300278. - Design / duration: Randomized 3-group, load-matched; 12 weeks, 24 interval sessions plus high LIT. - Population / baseline: 63 cyclists, VO2peak 61.3±5.8. - Verified extraction: Increasing was 4x16 then 4x8 then 4x4 (mean session lactate about 4.7, 9.2, and 12.7 mmol/L: longer and lower intensity first). Decreasing was the opposite (shorter, higher intensity first). Mixed alternated formats. All improved about 5-10% in 40-min power, peak power, and VO2peak. No 12-week group difference. Neither order isolates a pure threshold-then-VO2 or VO2-then-threshold sequence. - Limitations: Candidate for the prompt's sequencing claim; transcript not supplied. Abstract only. Do not map increasing to VO2-first or decreasing to threshold-first. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, VO₂-focused intervals, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3 - Citation aliases: TID17, INT09, DUR16. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID18 — Block periodization of high-intensity aerobic intervals provides superior training effects in trained cyclists

Rønnestad BR, Hansen J, Ellefsen S; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01485.x. PMID: 22646668. - Design / duration: 4-week block vs traditional HIT organization, volume matched; 4 weeks. - Population / baseline: Trained cyclists, VO2max ~62-63, n=10 and 9. - Verified extraction: Block (5 HIT sessions in week 1, then 1/week) improved VO2max 4.6±3.7%, Wmax 2.1±2.8%, power at 2 mmol 10±12%. Traditional 2 HIT/week: no significant changes. Interval length not stated in abstract. - Limitations: Abstract only. Format unspecified. Short. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: TID18, INT49. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID19 — No differences between 12 weeks of block- vs. traditional-periodized training in performance adaptations in trained cyclists

Almquist NW, Eriksen HB, Wilhelmsen M, et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.837634. PMID: 35299664. - Design / duration: 12-week load-matched block vs traditional periodization; 12 weeks. - Population / baseline: Trained cyclists, VO2peak 58±8; n=14 and 16. - Verified extraction: No performance difference. Both improved 5-min and 40-min TT power. VO2peak unchanged. Some hematological and capillary differences. - Limitations: Abstract only. Not an interval-duration trial. Included so it is not confused with Sylta. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: TID19, INT48. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID20 — A moderate-intensity interval training block improves endurance performance in well-trained cyclists

Mølmen KS, Odden I, Sørensen MD, Rustaden AM, Hammarström D, Hansen J, Nygaard H, Hamarsland H, Rønnestad BR; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003706. PMID: 40101160. - Design / duration: Randomized crossover vs regular preparatory training; 6 sessions in 7 days plus 6 days active recovery. - Population / baseline: 30 well-trained male cyclists, VO2max 70.5±4.6. - Verified extraction: 5-7 x 10-14 min at RPE 14.4, 66% of power at VO2max, 85% HRmax, 2.8 mmol/L. Vs regular training: power at 4 mmol +4.0 vs -1.3%; power at VO2max +2.5 vs -0.7%; VO2max +2.0 vs 0.0% (p=0.05). 15-min power not significantly different. - Limitations: Abstract only. One-week block. Men only. Not a format comparison against 30/15. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, VO₂-focused intervals, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3 - Citation aliases: TID20, INT37, DUR17. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID21 — Block training with moderate- or high-intensity intervals both improve endurance performance in well-trained cyclists

Rønnestad BR, Odden IU, Solum KS, Rustaden AM, Hamarsland H, Hammarström D, Nygaard H, Mølmen KS; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1002/ejsc.70067. PMID: 41169000. - Design / duration: Crossover of MIT vs HIT microcycles; HIT 5 sessions/6 days; MIT 6 sessions/7 days; test after 6 easy days. - Population / baseline: 22 cyclists, 21 men 1 woman, VO2max 69.5±6.0. - Verified extraction: Both improved 15-min power (HIT +2.8±5.3%, MIT +4.9±8.7%, p=0.44). MIT better for power at 4 mmol. No VO2max difference. HIT RPE 17.1; MIT RPE 14.5. HIT was 5x8.75 min multiple short intervals. - Limitations: Short blocks. Mostly men. Abstract plus partial full text. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3 - Citation aliases: TID21, INT38. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID22 — A microcycle of high-intensity short-interval sessions induces improvements in indicators of endurance performance compared to regular training

Solli GS, Odden I, Sælen V, Hansen J, Mølmen KS, Rønnestad BR; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1002/ejsc.12223. PMID: 39639702. - Design / duration: 6-day 30/15 block vs regular training; 6 days, five sessions of 5x8.75 min 30/15, plus 6 days reduced load. - Population / baseline: 22 block completers (21 men, 1 woman, VO2max 71.1±6.5) vs 11 regular (9 men, 2 women, VO2max 71.1±8.3). Five withdrew because testing was too hard.. - Verified extraction: Block improved last-minute power of the VO2max test more (+3.7% vs +0.7%) and 10-s sprint more. No significant difference in VO2max, power at 4 mmol, or 15-min power. - Limitations: Unequal groups. Supervised vs self-administered. Selection from hard testing. Not a clean format RCT. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3 - Citation aliases: TID22, INT39. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID23 — Interval training program optimization in highly trained endurance cyclists

Laursen PB, Shing CM, Peake JM, Coombes JS, Jenkins DG; 2002. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1097/00005768-200211000-00017. PMID: 12439086. - Design / duration: 4-week randomized HIT comparison plus control; 4 weeks, HIT twice weekly. - Population / baseline: 38 cyclists and triathletes, VO2peak 64.5±5.2. - Verified extraction: All HIT groups improved 40 km TT +4.4 to +5.8% and peak power +3.0 to +6.2% vs control. Groups using 8x60% Tmax at Pmax improved VO2peak more than control (+5.4% and +8.1% vs +1.0%). 12x30 s at 175% PPO also improved TT. Abstract duplicates a group label, so recovery-mode assignment is unclear. - Limitations: Abstract labeling error. Short intervention. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, VO₂-focused intervals, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3 - Citation aliases: TID23, INT15, DUR14. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID24 — Cardiac parasympathetic reactivation following exercise: implications for training prescription

Stanley J, Peake JM, Buchheit M; 2013. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-013-0083-4. PMID: 23912805. - Design / duration: Narrative review; not a new trial. - Population / baseline: Endurance training literature. - Verified extraction: Autonomic recovery summarized as up to 24 h after low intensity, 24-48 h after threshold, at least 48 h after high intensity. Fitter athletes recover faster. - Limitations: Marker review, not a performance dose-response. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID26 — Nonconsecutive- versus consecutive-day high-intensity interval training in cyclists

Gross M, Swensen T, King D; 2007. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e3180cac209. PMID: 17805101. - Design / duration: Group comparison; 3 weeks, 3 HIT sessions/week. - Population / baseline: 15 trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: Consecutive (n=9) and nonconsecutive (n=6) schedules both improved VO2peak, peak aerobic power, and 5 km TT, with no between-group difference in the authors' conclusion. - Limitations: Small, short; not equivalence. Unverified secondary percentages not used. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID27 — Effects of tapering on performance: a meta-analysis

Bosquet L, Montpetit J, Arvisais D, Mujika I; 2007. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31806010e0. PMID: 17762369. - Design / duration: Meta-analysis; pre-event tapers. - Population / baseline: Competitive athletes, 27 datasets. - Verified extraction: Larger effects with ~2 weeks and exponential volume cuts of about 41-60%, without cutting intensity or frequency. - Limitations: Heterogeneous sports; subgroup 'optima' are not a factorial law; not a mid-build deload trial. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID28 — Functional overreaching: the key to peak performance during the taper?

Aubry A et al.; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000000301. PMID: 25134000. - Design / duration: Controlled overload and taper; 8 weeks including overload and 4-week taper. - Population / baseline: 33 trained male triathletes. - Verified extraction: Functionally overreached athletes supercompensated less than acutely fatigued athletes (~2.6%) and had more infections (70% vs 20%). - Limitations: Male triathletes; qualitative statistics. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID29 — HIT maintains performance during the transition period and improves next season performance in well-trained cyclists

Rønnestad BR, Askestad A, Hansen J; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-014-2919-5. PMID: 24878691. - Design / duration: Group comparison; 8-week transition. - Population / baseline: 13 well-trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: One HIT every 7-10 days plus LIT (n=7) vs LIT emphasis (n=6). Magnitude-based inference favored HIT for power at 4 mmol and 40-min performance. - Limitations: Tiny sample; MBI; not a universal minimum. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID30 — Reduced training frequencies and maintenance of increased aerobic power

Hickson RC, Rosenkoetter MA; 1981. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

• Design / duration: Reduced-training experiment after a build; 15 weeks reduced frequency after 10 weeks.
• Population / baseline: Young adults, recently trained, n=12.
• Verified extraction: VO2max maintained at 2 or 4 days/week if intensity and duration kept.
• Limitations: Not trained cyclists.
• Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery
• Retrieval routes: source 1

TID31 — Reduced training intensities and loss of aerobic power, endurance, and cardiac growth

Hickson RC et al.; 1985. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/jappl.1985.58.2.492. PMID: 3156841. - Design / duration: Reduced-intensity experiment; 15 weeks. - Population / baseline: Recently trained young adults. - Verified extraction: Cutting intensity by one-third or two-thirds lost VO2max gains despite maintained frequency and duration. - Limitations: Not athletes in season. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID32 — Time course of loss of adaptations after stopping prolonged intense endurance training

Coyle EF et al.; 1984. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/jappl.1984.57.6.1857. PMID: 6511559. - Design / duration: Detraining time course; 84 days of inactivity. - Population / baseline: 7 endurance-trained subjects who stopped. - Verified extraction: VO2max -7% by 21 days and -16% by 56 days. Enzyme half-time ~12 days. Capillarization did not decline in the observed window. - Limitations: Complete cessation, not reduced training. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID33 — Maintaining physical performance: the minimal dose of exercise needed to preserve endurance and strength over time

Spiering BA, Mujika I, Sharp MA, Foulis SA; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003964. PMID: 33629972. - Design / duration: Narrative review; up to 15 weeks in cited maintenance studies. - Population / baseline: General and military populations. - Verified extraction: Endurance can be maintained with frequency as low as 2 sessions/week or volume cut 33-66% if intensity is maintained. - Limitations: Not a trained-cyclist prescription. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID34 — Training prescription guided by heart-rate variability in cycling

Javaloyes A; Sarabia JM; Lamberts RP; Moya-Ramon M; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0122. PMID: 29809080. - Design / duration: Controlled training comparison; 4 baseline + 8 training weeks. - Population / baseline: 17 well-trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: HRV-guided group improved PPO 5.1%±4.5%, W at VT2 13.9%±8.8%, 40-min TT 7.3%±4.5%. Traditional group did not improve significantly. Between-group differences not significant. - Limitations: Abstract. Small. Magnitude-based inference used. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: TID34, MON44. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID36 — The training characteristics of world-class distance runners: an integration of scientific literature and results-proven practice

Haugen T, Sandbakk Ø, Seiler S, Tønnessen E; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01692-1. PMID: 35362850. - Design / duration: Narrative integration of observational practice; training year. - Population / baseline: World-class distance runners. - Verified extraction: ≥80% of running volume at low intensity; 11-14 sessions/week; race-pace work increases toward the main competition; taper often 7-10 days. - Limitations: Runners, observational. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID37 — Influence of interval training frequency on time-trial performance in elite endurance athletes

Tønnessen E, Hisdal J, Rønnestad BR; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17093190. PMID: 32375328. - Design / duration: Randomized frequency comparison, volume matched; intervention period in-season preparation. - Population / baseline: Elite XC skiers/biathletes; 4 short sessions n=6 vs 2 longer n=9. - Verified extraction: Intervals ~85% HRmax. Two longer sessions improved economy and fractional utilization; four shorter did not show those changes. VO2max unchanged in both. - Limitations: Tiny, mostly male, skiers; 85% HRmax is not necessarily severe-domain work. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID38 — Interval training at VO2max: effects on aerobic performance and overtraining markers

Billat VL et al.; 1999. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1097/00005768-199901000-00024. PMID: 9927024. - Design / duration: Sequential training phases; 4 weeks of 1 vVO2max session/week, then 4 weeks of 3/week. - Population / baseline: 8 subjects. - Verified extraction: One session/week improved velocity at VO2max. Three sessions/week did not further improve performance; end-test norepinephrine rose. - Limitations: Sequential, small, not cyclists. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID39 — Impact of weekly frequency of high-intensity interval training on cardiorespiratory, metabolic, and performance measures in recreational runners

Lenk M et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.14814/phy2.70573. PMID: 40976973. - Design / duration: Exploratory frequency comparison; 6 weeks of 4x4 once, twice, or thrice weekly. - Population / baseline: 26 recreationally active adults, VO2max 51.3±7.1. - Verified extraction: All frequencies improved VO2max and time to exhaustion. Larger effects at 2-3/week; no clear extra benefit of 3 vs 2. Wide CIs. - Limitations: Not trained cyclists; exploratory. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID41 — Reverse periodization for improving sports performance: a systematic review

González-Ravé JM et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1186/s40798-022-00445-8. PMID: 35445953. - Design / duration: Systematic review; varied. - Population / baseline: 200 athletes across 11 studies. - Verified extraction: Reverse periodization was not superior to traditional or block models for the reviewed outcomes including VO2max. - Limitations: Modest study quality, mean PEDro 4.9. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID42 — Periodization theory: confronting an inconvenient truth

Kiely J; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0823-y. PMID: 29189930. - Design / duration: Commentary; n/a. - Population / baseline: periodization theory. - Verified extraction: Argues the stress-theory foundation of periodization does not justify biologically predetermined plans. - Limitations: Not an endurance RCT. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID43 — Is empirical research on periodization trustworthy?

Afonso J et al.; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2017-0078. PMID: 28344448. - Design / duration: Methodological review; n/a. - Population / baseline: periodization literature. - Verified extraction: Documents conceptual and methodological problems in periodization research. - Limitations: Critique, not a performance trial. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID44 — Block periodization of endurance training - a systematic review and meta-analysis

Mølmen KS, Øfsteng SJ, Rønnestad BR; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s180408. PMID: 31802956. - Design / duration: Meta-analysis; search to Aug 2019. - Population / baseline: trained to well-trained endurance athletes. - Verified extraction: Small favorable block vs traditional effects for VO2max SMD 0.40 (0.02-0.79) and Wmax SMD 0.28 (0.01-0.54). - Limitations: Predates Almquist 2022; heterogeneous. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID45 — 5-week block periodization increases aerobic power in elite cross-country skiers

Rønnestad BR et al.; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.12418. PMID: 25648345. - Design / duration: Group comparison; 5 weeks, similar total HIT and LIT. - Population / baseline: 19 elite XC skiers. - Verified extraction: Block increased peak power and power at 4 mmol more than traditional; VO2max +2±2% vs no change. - Limitations: Skiers, small n. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID46 — Comparison of aerobic capacity changes after polarized or block training in trained mountain bike cyclists

Hebisz P, Hebisz R, Drelak M; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18168865. PMID: 34444612. - Design / duration: Group comparison; 8 weeks. - Population / baseline: 20 trained MTB cyclists. - Verified extraction: Polarized increased VO2max more than an alternating LIT/SIT-HIIT block. Threshold powers rose similarly. - Limitations: Different block model; small. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID47 — Aerobic high-intensity intervals improve VO2max more than moderate training

Helgerud J, Høydal K, Wang E, et al.; 2007. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e3180304570. PMID: 17414804. - Design / duration: 8-week randomized running comparison, work-matched; 8 weeks, 3 days/week. - Population / baseline: 40 moderately trained men. - Verified extraction: 4x4 at 90-95% HRmax raised VO2max 7.2% (55.5 to 60.4). 15/15 raised it 5.5% (60.5 to 64.4). Both beat lactate-threshold and 70% HRmax running. Stroke volume +~10% after interval training. - Limitations: Running, not cycling. Moderately trained. 4x4 baseline lower than 15/15. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, VO₂-focused intervals, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3 - Citation aliases: TID47, INT13, DUR21. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID48 — Adaptations to aerobic interval training: interactive effects of exercise intensity and total work duration

Seiler S, Jøranson K, Olesen BV, Hetlelid KJ; 2013. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2011.01351.x. PMID: 21812820. - Design / duration: 7-week randomized comparison of exclusive interval durations; 7 weeks, 2 interval sessions/week. - Population / baseline: 35 recreational cyclists, 29 men 6 women, VO2peak 52±6, ~6 h/week. - Verified extraction: 4x8 min beat 4x4, 4x16, and low-only for VO2peak, power at VO2peak, and power at 4 mmol. 4x8 gain contrast 11.4% (8.0-14.9) vs 5.5% for 4x4 and 5.6% for 4x16. Performed at 90% HRpeak and 9.6 mmol/L vs 94%/13.2 for 4x4 and 88%/4.9 for 4x16. - Limitations: Abstract only. Recreational, not well-trained. n=9 per interval arm. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, VO₂-focused intervals, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3 - Citation aliases: TID48, INT12, DUR11. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID49 — A systematic review on the effectiveness of active recovery interventions on athletic performance

Ortiz RO et al.; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002589. PMID: 29742750. - Design / duration: Systematic review; post-exercise active recovery. - Population / baseline: competitive adult athletes. - Verified extraction: Weak evidence that active recovery improves subsequent performance; psychological benefit more plausible. - Limitations: Not a test of multi-hour easy rides. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID50 — Effects of tapering on performance in endurance athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Wang Z et al.; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0282838. PMID: 37163550. - Design / duration: Meta-analysis; pre-event tapers. - Population / baseline: endurance athletes, 14 studies. - Verified extraction: TT SMD -0.45. Volume cuts of 41-60% with intensity and frequency maintained, lasting up to 21 days, were associated with better TTs. - Limitations: Mixes sports; pre-taper overload finding conflicts with Aubry on functional overreaching. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID51 — Training prescription guided by heart rate variability vs block periodization in well-trained cyclists

Javaloyes A et al.; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003337. PMID: 31490431. - Design / duration: Group comparison; 8 weeks. - Population / baseline: 20 well-trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: HRV-guided training improved VO2max, PPO, VT powers, and 40-min TT. Block improved power at VT2. - Limitations: Small; between-group sentence incomplete in retrieved abstract. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID52 — Individual endurance training prescription with heart rate variability

Vesterinen V et al.; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000000910. PMID: 26909534. - Design / duration: Randomized comparison; 8 weeks intensive. - Population / baseline: 40 recreational runners. - Verified extraction: HRV group did fewer moderate/HIT sessions (13.2±6.0 vs 17.7±2.5) and improved 3000 m; traditional change not significant. - Limitations: Recreational runners. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery, Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: TID52, MON45. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

TID53 — Training periodization, methods, intensity distribution, and volume in highly trained and elite distance runners: a systematic review

Casado A et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0435. PMID: 35418513. - Design / duration: Systematic review; observational and intervention reports. - Population / baseline: highly trained and elite runners. - Verified extraction: Pyramidal TID common; both pyramidal and polarized used; marathoners more pyramidal, 1500 m more polarized. - Limitations: Runners, not a cyclist RCT. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID54 — The training intensity distribution among well-trained and elite endurance athletes

Stöggl TL, Sperlich B; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2015.00295. PMID: 26578968. - Design / duration: Narrative review; mixed designs. - Population / baseline: well-trained and elite endurance athletes. - Verified extraction: Retrospective studies often pyramidal; some phases polarized; early RCTs favored polarized vs threshold or HVLIT in less elite groups. - Limitations: 2015; later syntheses narrow the RCT claim. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID55 — Performance changes in world-class kayakers following two different training periodization models

García-Pallarés J et al.; 2010. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-010-1484-9. PMID: 20414669. - Design / duration: Two-season comparison, not randomized parallel; two training cycles. - Population / baseline: 10 world-class kayakers. - Verified extraction: Similar VO2peak gains despite block cycle being 10 weeks and 120 h shorter; larger peak speed/power gains after block. - Limitations: Not randomized; kayak; n=10. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID56 — Block periodization versus traditional training theory: a review

Issurin V; 2008. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

• Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a.
• Population / baseline: training theory.
• Verified extraction: Argues for concentrated blocks over mixed traditional loading.
• Limitations: Conceptual; not cyclist outcome data.
• Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery
• Retrieval routes: source 1

TID57 — Reduced training duration effects on aerobic power, endurance, and cardiac growth

Hickson RC et al.; 1982. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/jappl.1982.53.1.225. PMID: 6214534. - Design / duration: Reduced-duration experiment; 15 weeks. - Population / baseline: recently trained young adults. - Verified extraction: VO2max maintained when duration was cut and intensity and frequency kept. - Limitations: Not trained cyclists. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID58 — Effect of reduced training on muscular strength and endurance in competitive swimmers

Neufer PD et al.; 1987. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

• Design / duration: Reduced-training comparison; 4 weeks after 5 months.
• Population / baseline: competitive male swimmers.
• Verified extraction: 3 sessions/week maintained VO2max better than 1/week or rest. Swim power fell in all groups.
• Limitations: Swimming, 4 weeks.
• Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery
• Retrieval routes: source 1

TID59 — The effect of polarized training intensity distribution on maximal oxygen uptake and work economy among endurance athletes: a systematic review

Nøst HL, Aune MA, van den Tillaar R; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/sports12120326. PMID: 39728866. - Design / duration: Systematic review; short-term interventions. - Population / baseline: endurance athletes, 14 studies. - Verified extraction: Concludes polarized patterns can improve VO2max, VO2peak, and economy short term. - Limitations: Narrative endorsement more than a head-to-head effect size. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID60 — Effects of polarized training vs other training intensity distribution models on physiological variables and endurance performance: a scoping review

Rivera-Köfler T et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000005033. PMID: 39714232. - Design / duration: Scoping review; long-term TID comparisons. - Population / baseline: endurance athletes of different levels, 15 studies. - Verified extraction: POL and PYR both linked to VO2max and aerobic-threshold gains; all included models could improve anaerobic-threshold markers. - Limitations: Not a meta-analysis; heterogeneous tests. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

TID61 — The effect of periodization and training intensity distribution on middle- and long-distance running performance: a systematic review

Kenneally M, Casado A, Santos-Concejero J; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2017-0327. PMID: 29182410. - Design / duration: Systematic review; ≥4 weeks. - Population / baseline: middle- and long-distance runners, 16 studies. - Verified extraction: Pyramidal and polarized appeared more effective than threshold in the included studies, with noted exceptions among top marathoners. - Limitations: Running review; not used as a cyclist effect size. - Relevant chapters: Distribution, periodization and recovery - Retrieval routes: source 1

VO₂-focused intervals

INT01 — The higher the fraction of maximal oxygen uptake is during interval training, the greater is the cycling performance gain

Odden I, Nymoen L, Urianstad T, Kristoffersen M, Hammarström D, Hansen J, Mølmen KS, Rønnestad BR; 2024. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1002/ejsc.12202. PMID: 39385317. - Design / duration: 9-week training intervention; %VO2max measured every session; regression plus post-hoc median split, not randomized to high vs low fraction; 9 weeks, ~21 sessions of 5x8 min at PO40min, three work-rate patterns in randomized order. - Population / baseline: 22 well-trained cyclists, 19 men 3 women, VO2max 67.1±6.4 mL/kg/min. - Verified extraction: Mean interval %VO2max associated with gains in VO2max (R2adj 0.54, p=0.029; multivariate model including baseline, sex, mass change; slope 0.25 mL/kg/min per percentage point), Wmax (R2adj 0.44), power at 4 mmol (R2adj 0.25), and a performance index (R2adj 0.36). No association with 15-min power (p=0.215) or Hb mass (p=0.853). Post-hoc high vs low fraction: VO2max +5.23 vs +1.78 mL/kg/min. High-fraction half did more zone 1 (3:12 vs 1:48 h) and tended to train more total hours (9:43 vs 7:40). Time≥90% only tended to relate to VO2max change. RPE and lactate did not separate the halves. - Limitations: Association not causation. Post-hoc split. Easy-volume imbalance. Three women. R2adj is not fraction-alone variance. Title overclaims. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3

INT02 — The higher oxygen consumption during multiple short intervals is sex-independent and not influenced by skeletal muscle characteristics in well-trained cyclists

Urianstad T, Hamarsland H, Odden I, Lorentzen HC, Hammarström D, Mølmen KS, Rønnestad BR; 2024. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1002/ejsc.12214. PMID: 39435498. - Design / duration: Acute randomized crossover, workload-matched; Single sessions: 6x8 min. - Population / baseline: 11 well-trained women VO2max 62.5±6.4 and 8 men VO2max 81.0±5.2 mL/kg/min. - Verified extraction: 30/15 at 118/60% PO40min produced higher mean %VO2max (86.7±10.1%) and longer time ≥90% (1123±787 s) than constant 100% (85.0±10.4%; 879±779 s) and 60/60 at 110/90% (85.6±10.0%; 917±745 s). No sex difference. Vastus lateralis fiber type, capillarization, and CS activity unrelated to %VO2max. - Limitations: Acute only. Huge SD on time ≥90%. Mean %VO2max difference is 1-2 points. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

INT03 — Short intervals induce superior training adaptations compared with long intervals in cyclists - an effort-matched approach

Rønnestad BR, Hansen J, Vegge G, Tønnessen E, Slettaløkken G; 2015. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.12165. PMID: 24382021. - Design / duration: Randomized 10-week training comparison, effort-matched not power-matched; 10 weeks, 2 HIT sessions/week. - Population / baseline: Trained-to-well-trained male competitive cyclists; 20 randomized, 9 short and 7 long completers. - Verified extraction: SI: 3x13x30/15, 3 min between series. LI: 4x5 min, 2.5 min recovery. Recovery 50% of work power. Work power 363±32 vs 324±42 W. RPE and lactate similar. VO2max +8.7±5.0% vs +2.6±5.2% (p≤0.05). Wmax +8.5±5.2% vs +1.6±3.6%. Power at 4 mmol +12±9% vs +5±6% (between-group p=0.12). 40-min power +12±10% vs +4±4% (p=0.056). 5-min +8±7% vs +3±7% (ns between groups). 30-s Wingate +5±3% vs +1.4±3.7% (p=0.10). Authors infer time≥90% VO2max as cause but did not measure VO2 during training. - Limitations: Male only. Small n. Dropouts. Effort matching confounds duration with power. Mechanism not measured in this trial. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3 - Citation aliases: INT03, DUR13. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

INT04 — Superior performance improvements in elite cyclists following short-interval vs effort-matched long-interval training

Rønnestad BR, Hansen J, Nygaard H, Lundby C; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.13627. PMID: 31977120. - Design / duration: 3-week randomized comparison, effort-matched by RPE; 3 weeks, 9 sessions. - Population / baseline: 18 elite cyclists, VO2max 73±4 mL/kg/min, n=9 per group. - Verified extraction: 3x13x30/15 vs 4x5 min. Short intervals improved peak aerobic power (+3.7±4.3% vs -0.3±2.8%), fractional utilization and power at 4 mmol, and 20-min power (+4.7±4.4% vs -1.4±2.2%). No group difference in VO2max change. - Limitations: Abstract only. Very short. Elite male-dominated sample. One lab. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: INT04, DUR12. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

INT05 — Systemic and muscular responses to effort-matched short intervals and long intervals in elite cyclists

Almquist NW, Nygaard H, Vegge G, Hammarström D, Ellefsen S, Rønnestad BR; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.13672. PMID: 32267032. - Design / duration: Acute randomized crossover; Single sessions. - Population / baseline: 8 elite cyclists. - Verified extraction: 30 s vs 5 min, work:recovery 2:1. SI 14±3% higher mean power (421±27 vs 371±22 W) and longer time >90% VO2max and HRpeak, similar RPE, lactate, and EMG. Mostly similar mRNA; NHE1 decreased after SI. - Limitations: Acute only. Large variance on time>90% (54±76% longer). Not an adaptation trial. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT06 — Multiple short intervals induce longer time above 90% of maximal oxygen consumption than long intervals when matched by similar fixed intensity, but not during self-paced cycling ergometry

Appelhans D, Rønnestad B, Skovereng K; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2024-0115. PMID: 40328438. - Design / duration: Acute crossover, fixed %MAP and self-paced maximal; Single sessions: 3x13x30/15 vs 6x5 min. - Population / baseline: 12 well-trained cyclists and triathletes, VO2max 68±6.3. - Verified extraction: Time >90% VO2max greater for 30/15 than long intervals when fixed (p<0.01), not when self-paced (p=0.321). Self-paced raised time >90% from 420±259 to 1130±204 s (30/15) and 178±159 to 1016±312 s (long). - Limitations: Abstract only. Acute. n=12. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT07 — Optimizing interval training through power-output variation within the work intervals

Bossi AH, Mesquida C, Passfield L, Rønnestad BR, Hopker JG; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0260. PMID: 32244222. - Design / duration: Acute crossover, matched duration and mean power; Two HIIT sessions. - Population / baseline: 14 cyclists, VO2max 69.2±6.6. - Verified extraction: Varied-intensity work intervals: 410±207 s >90% VO2max vs 286±162 s constant (p=0.02). No difference in RPE, lactate, or perceptual/HR training load. Higher ventilation partly mediated. - Limitations: Acute only. No adaptation follow-up. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT08 — Similar time near VO2max regardless of work rate manipulation in cycling interval training

Wommer D, Turnes T, Souza K, Guglielmo LGA; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1055/a-1550-9977. PMID: 34261134. - Design / duration: Acute crossover, work-matched 8x60 s; Single sessions. - Population / baseline: 10 healthy men, VO2max 3.82±0.52 L/min; not described as trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: Constant, decreasing 110-90%, and increasing 90-110% of peak power: time ≥90% VO2max 274±132, 313±102, 310±113 s (p=0.37). Lactate and final RPE similar. - Limitations: Acute. Small, not clearly trained. Different protocol from Bossi 2020. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT10 — Effects of high-intensity training on physiological and hormonal adaptions in well-trained cyclists

Sylta Ø, Tønnessen E, Sandbakk Ø, Hammarström D, Danielsen J, Skovereng K, Rønnestad BR, Seiler S; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001214. PMID: 28121800. - Design / duration: Time-course analysis of the Sylta 2016 intervention; 12 weeks, tests every 4 weeks. - Population / baseline: Same 63 well-trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: First 4 weeks of 4x16 (about 2-3 h/week interval work) improved power at 4 mmol and VO2peak more than starting with 4x4 (about 1 h/week). Groups converged by week 12. - Limitations: Abstract only. Early difference confounded by accumulated work, not just bout length. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT11 — How does interval-training prescription affect physiological and perceptual responses?

Seiler S, Sylta Ø; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2016-0464. PMID: 28051345. - Design / duration: Observational analysis of >1400 maximal-effort sessions inside a training study; 12 weeks. - Population / baseline: 63 well-trained male cyclists, VO2peak 62±6. - Verified extraction: 4x16, 4x8, 4x4 at maximal session effort were 95±5%, 106±5%, and 117±6% of 40-min TT power; peak HR 89, 91, 94% HRpeak; lactate 4.7, 9.2, 12.7 mmol/L. RPE 19-20 in 8% of 4x16 sessions vs 61% of 4x4. - Limitations: Abstract only. Describes responses, not which format adapts more. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT14 — Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trial performance

Stepto NK, Hawley JA, Dennis SC, Hopkins WG; 1999. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1097/00005768-199905000-00018. PMID: 10331896. - Design / duration: 5-arm 3-week interval comparison plus usual base; 6 sessions in 3 weeks. - Population / baseline: 20 male endurance cyclists, VO2peak 4.8±0.6 L/min, split across five protocols. - Verified extraction: 8x4 min at 85% peak power (~2.8%) and 12x30 s at 175% peak power (~2.4%) improved 40 km TT. 12x60 s at 100% peak power and 4x8 min at 80% peak power did not significantly improve. Cells are small. - Limitations: Abstract only. Fixed % peak power may under-dose longer bouts. Tiny cells. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals, Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: INT14, DUR15. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

INT16 — The impact of rest duration on work intensity and RPE during interval training

Seiler S, Hetlelid KJ; 2005. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000177560.18014.d8. PMID: 16177614. - Design / duration: Acute crossover of rest duration; Single sessions, 6x4 min. - Population / baseline: 9 well-trained male runners, VO2max 71±4. - Verified extraction: Speed rose slightly from 1 to 2 min rest and no further at 4 min. Self-selected rest averaged 118±23 s. - Limitations: Runners, not cyclists. Acute. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT17 — Effect of work duration on physiological and RPE responses during self-paced interval training

Seiler S, Sjursen JE; 2004. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1046/j.1600-0838.2003.00353.x. PMID: 15387806. - Design / duration: Acute Latin-square comparison of bout duration; Single sessions. - Population / baseline: 12 well-trained runners, VO2max 65±6. - Verified extraction: 24x1, 12x2, 6x4, 4x6 min, 1:1 rest. Peak VO2 ~92% for 2-6 min vs 82±5% for 1 min. Peak RPE ~17 for all. Lactate similar. - Limitations: Runners. Acute. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT18 — Influence of recovery mode (passive vs. active) on time spent at maximal oxygen uptake during an intermittent session in young and endurance-trained athletes

Thevenet D, Tardieu-Berger M, Berthoin S, Prioux J; 2007. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-006-0327-1. PMID: 17115178. - Design / duration: Acute crossover; 30/30 runs to exhaustion. - Population / baseline: 8 endurance-trained male adolescents, VO2max 57.4±6.1. - Verified extraction: Passive recovery doubled time to exhaustion vs active at 50% MAV, with similar absolute time ≥90% and ≥95% VO2max. - Limitations: Adolescents, running, acute. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT19 — Effects of recovery mode (active vs. passive) on performance during a short high-intensity interval training program: a longitudinal study

Ben Abderrahman A, Zouhal H, Chamari K, Thevenet D, et al.; 2013. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-012-2556-9. PMID: 23229881. - Design / duration: 7-week running HIT, active vs passive recovery; 7 weeks. - Population / baseline: 24 adults; training groups n=9 and n=9, control n=6. - Verified extraction: VO2max increased in the active-recovery group, not the passive-recovery group, despite longer time to exhaustion with passive recovery. - Limitations: Running, small, not cyclists. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT20 — Effects of passive or active recovery regimes applied during long-term interval training on physical fitness

Zouhal H, Abderrahman AB, Jayavel A, et al.; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1186/s40798-024-00673-0. PMID: 38443585. - Design / duration: Systematic review, 24 studies, search to February 2023; Long-term interval programs. - Population / baseline: Healthy trained and untrained, mixed sports. - Verified extraction: Both active and passive recovery intervals improved fitness markers. Recovery type did not appear to determine outcomes. - Limitations: Heterogeneous. Not cyclist-specific. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT21 — Time spent at or near VO2max during high-intensity interval training: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Schoenmakers P, Murray K, White J, Matta G, Bossi AH; 2026. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1186/s13102-026-01766-x. PMID: 42237396. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis of acute tVO2max, search to September 2025; Acute sessions. - Population / baseline: 86 articles, 239 HIIT protocols, mixed. - Verified extraction: Long work intervals (≥2 min) elicited more time near VO2max than short (≤30 s) or moderate bouts. Variable-intensity intervals beat even pacing (SMD 0.80). Active vs passive recovery: no effect. Authors state dose-response with long-term adaptation requires further investigation. - Limitations: Acute synthesis. Short category is not specifically 30/15 series. Mixed populations. Opening full text plus abstract; subgroup tables not fully extracted. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

INT22 — Reliability of time spent near VO2max during 2 cycling interval training sessions: the effect of VO2max criteria

Raimundo JAG, Tramontin AF, Martins EC, Borszcz FK, Turnes T, de Aguiar RA, Caputo F; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000005154. PMID: 40493484. - Design / duration: Test-retest reliability; 5x2 min and 10x1 min sessions. - Population / baseline: 15 healthy men. - Verified extraction: CV 19-35% for 5x2 min and 36-72% for 10x1 min. Same-day VO2max verification did not fix reliability. - Limitations: Not trained cyclists. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT23 — Time spent near VO2max during different cycling self-paced interval training protocols

Dall'Agnol C, Turnes T, De Lucas RD; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0314. PMID: 33771941. - Design / duration: Acute randomized crossover; 4x4 and 8x? 8-min sessions with 4:1 or 2:1 work:recovery. - Population / baseline: 11 cyclists, VO2max 55.7±7.4. - Verified extraction: 4 min/2 min recovery and 8 min/4 min recovery prioritized time near VO2max. 4/2 mean power 275±23 W, higher than 4/1 (261±27 W). - Limitations: Acute. Modestly trained. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT24 — Interval training in the boundaries of severe domain: effects on aerobic parameters

Turnes T, de Aguiar RA, Cruz RS, Caputo F; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-015-3263-0. PMID: 26373721. - Design / duration: 4-week two-group training comparison; 4 weeks. - Population / baseline: 21 recreational cyclists. - Verified extraction: Upper severe-domain intervals had higher time at VO2max and larger VO2max gain (6.3±1.9% vs 3.3±1.8%) and lactate-threshold gain than 4x5 min at 105% critical power. Odden 2024 reports no individual correlation in this study; that null was not re-verified in Turnes full text. - Limitations: Recreational. Domain confounded with time-at-VO2max. Abstract only for primary results. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

INT25 — A 6-day high-intensity interval microcycle improves indicators of endurance performance in elite cross-country skiers

Rønnestad BR, Bjerkrheim KA, Hansen J, Mølmen KS; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.948127. PMID: 36439620. - Design / duration: 6-day HIT block vs usual training; 6 days plus 5 days recovery. - Population / baseline: 24 well-trained XC skiers, VO2max ~69. - Verified extraction: Block improved maximal 1-min velocity and velocity at 4 mmol more than control. ICC of time ≥90% VO2max was 0.57. - Limitations: Skiers, not cyclists. Abstract only. Correlation with adaptation not in the retrieved abstract. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT26 — Effects of different protocols of high intensity interval training for VO2max improvements in adults: a meta-analysis

Wen D, Utesch T, Wu J, et al.; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2019.01.013. PMID: 30733142. - Design / duration: Meta-analysis of RCTs to April 2018; Varied. - Population / baseline: 53 studies, healthy, overweight, and athletic adults; not trained-cyclist specific. - Verified extraction: Long intervals ≥2 min, high volume ≥15 min, and ≥4-12 weeks had larger VO2max effects than short/low-volume HIIT when compared with control or MICT. Short intervals still beat control, especially in general populations. - Limitations: Mixed populations. Abstract only. Not a refutation of effort-matched 30/15 in trained cyclists. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT27 — Effectiveness of HIT and continuous endurance training for VO2max improvements

Milanović Z, Sporiš G, Weston M; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-015-0365-0. PMID: 26243014. - Design / duration: Meta-analysis; ≥2 weeks. - Population / baseline: 28 studies, 723 adults, baseline VO2max 40.8±7.9. - Verified extraction: HIT +5.5 mL/kg/min vs control; small additional benefit vs continuous training. Low baseline fitness. Not transferable as a magnitude to trained cyclists. - Limitations: Untrained/recreational baseline. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT28 — Effect of HIIT versus SIT on time-trial performance

Rosenblat MA, Perrotta AS, Thomas SG; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-020-01264-1. PMID: 32034701. - Design / duration: Meta-analysis, 6 articles; ≥2 weeks. - Population / baseline: At least moderately trained by authors' definition, often ~3 h/week. - Verified extraction: No overall HIIT vs SIT TT difference. Long HIIT ≥4 min about 2% greater TT improvement than SIT. No VO2max difference. - Limitations: Only six studies. Training status below the 7-12 h audience for many participants. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT29 — Programming interval training to optimize time-trial performance

Rosenblat MA, Lin E, da Costa BR, Thomas SG; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01457-2. PMID: 33826121. - Design / duration: Meta-analysis, 29 studies, 67 groups; ≥2 weeks. - Population / baseline: Mean VO2 52, range 32-70; inactive, active, and trained. - Verified extraction: Trained athletes ~2% TT improvement vs up to 6% in less trained. HIIT TT change depended on work-bout duration, not intensity. Dose-response with sessions and total work for HIIT, not SIT. - Limitations: Mixed sports and fitness. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT30 — Effect of interval training on the factors influencing maximal oxygen consumption

Rosenblat MA, Granata C, Thomas SG; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01624-5. PMID: 35041180. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; ≥1 week or ≥3 sessions. - Population / baseline: 32 studies, 369 participants, 49 women, mixed training status. - Verified extraction: Only HIIT significantly increased maximal stroke volume (~14%) and cardiac output (~13%). Both HIIT and SIT increased citrate synthase. Capillary density increased after SIT in active individuals in the pool. - Limitations: Not elite cyclists. Abstract only. Does not justify exclusive central vs peripheral format labels. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT31 — VO2max trainability and high intensity interval training in humans: a meta-analysis

Bacon AP, Carter RE, Ogle EA, Joyner MJ; 2013. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0073182. PMID: 24066036. - Design / duration: Meta-analysis 1965-2012; 6-13 weeks. - Population / baseline: 334 sedentary or recreationally active adults <45 years. - Verified extraction: Mean VO2max increase 0.51 L/min (0.43-0.60). Longer-interval subset ~0.8-0.9 L/min. - Limitations: Not trained athletes. Inclusion required ≥1:1 work/rest and ≥10 min high-intensity work. Do not transfer liters to trained cyclists. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

INT33 — High-intensity interval training, solutions to the programming puzzle. Part I: cardiopulmonary emphasis

Buchheit M, Laursen PB; 2013. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-013-0029-x. PMID: 23539308. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Mixed athletes. - Verified extraction: States it is believed that several minutes at ≥90% VO2max is an optimal stimulus. Nine programming variables. Not a validation that time ≥90% causes adaptation. - Limitations: Review language is belief, not a dose trial. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT34 — An examination and critique of current methods to determine exercise intensity

Jamnick NA, Pettitt RW, Granata C, Pyne DB, Bishop DJ; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-020-01322-8. PMID: 32729096. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: n/a. - Verified extraction: Fixed percent of VO2max, HRmax, or peak work rate does not reliably place people in a given intensity domain. Critical power/speed better delineates heavy vs severe among common anchors. Acute responses do not guarantee chronic adaptations. - Limitations: Review. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT35 — Incremental exercise test design and analysis: implications for performance diagnostics in endurance athletes

Bentley DJ, Newell J, Bishop D; 2007. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.2165/00007256-200737070-00002. PMID: 17595153. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Endurance athletes, synthesized studies. - Verified extraction: Longer stages reduce peak power. Thresholds can appear at higher absolute work rates with shorter stages. Changes the validity of prescription from those numbers. - Limitations: Review. This brief did not re-extract every primary ramp study it cites. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT36 — The relationship among peak power output, lactate threshold, and short-distance cycling performance: effects of incremental exercise test design

McNaughton LR, Roberts S, Bentley DJ; 2006. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/R-15914.1. PMID: 16506862. - Design / duration: Crossover of 3-min vs 5-min stage tests plus 30-min TT; Three lab visits. - Population / baseline: 11 men, VO2max 62±8. - Verified extraction: Peak power, lactate markers, and correlations with 30-min TT did not differ significantly between 3-min and 5-min stages. - Limitations: Small. Does not test ramp vs long stage. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT40 — Intermittent runs at the velocity associated with maximal oxygen uptake enables subjects to remain at maximal oxygen uptake for a longer time than intense but submaximal runs

Billat VL, Slawinski J, Bocquet V, et al.; 2000. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s004210050029. PMID: 10638376. - Design / duration: Acute comparison; Single sessions. - Population / baseline: 8 long-distance runners, VO2max 59.8±5.4. - Verified extraction: 30/30 at vVO2max accumulated more time at VO2max than a hard continuous run. Authors state results do not allow speculation about chronic effects. - Limitations: Running. n=8. Acute. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT41 — Faster intervals, faster recoveries - intensified short VO2max running intervals are inferior to traditional long intervals in terms of time spent above 90% VO2max

Fleckenstein D, Braunstein H, Walter N; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2024.1507957. PMID: 39835194. - Design / duration: Acute randomized crossover; Single sessions. - Population / baseline: 12 highly trained middle-distance runners, 7 men 5 women. - Verified extraction: 24x30 s at 100% vVO2max with 30 s recovery: 201±268 s above 90% VO2max vs 328±147 s for 4x3 min at 95% vVO2max (p=0.05). Time above 90% HRmax was higher in the 30 s session. Lactate higher in 3 min (9.69±1.82 vs 7.59±2.01). - Limitations: Running, not 30/15 cycling. Acute. Large SD. HR p-value not cleanly recoverable from retrieved abstract text. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT42 — High-intensity cycle interval training improves cycling and running performance in triathletes

Etxebarria N, Anson JM, Pyne DB, Ferguson RA; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2013.853841. PMID: 24206175. - Design / duration: 3-week pair-matched comparison; 6 sessions. - Population / baseline: 14 moderately trained male triathletes, VO2peak 58.7±8.1. - Verified extraction: Short sets of 10/20/40 s and 6-8x5 min both raised VO2peak ~7%. Only long intervals substantially improved subsequent 5 km run. - Limitations: Not pure 40/20. Small. Triathlon run outcome. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT43 — Effects of initial performance, gross efficiency and VO2peak characteristics on subsequent adaptations to endurance training in competitive cyclists

Skovereng K, Sylta Ø, Tønnessen E, et al.; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00713. PMID: 29962959. - Design / duration: Secondary analysis of the 12-week Sylta intervention; 12 weeks. - Population / baseline: 60 competitive cyclists, VO2peak 61±6. - Verified extraction: HIT 1.5±0.3 h/week and LIT 8.3±2.7 h/week. VO2peak and 40-min power rose. Higher initial values predicted slightly smaller gains (r about -0.27 to -0.32). Authors: too small to change practice. - Limitations: Abstract only. Not a format trial. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT46 — Effects of HIIT in cool and hot on temperate performance and physiological response in trained cyclists

Boynton JR, Peiffer JJ, Abbiss CR; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000005013. PMID: 39977025. - Design / duration: 4-week 5x4 min HIIT in 13 C vs 35 C; 8 sessions. - Population / baseline: 20 trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: Time >90% VO2max 875±295 s cool vs 420±395 s hot. Temperate 20 km power +3.3±3.4% vs +7.3±6.3%, no between-group difference. - Limitations: Heat confound. Not a format comparison. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT47 — Maximizing muscle deoxygenation during interval training in middle-distance runners

Bellinger P, Morris W, Roberts L; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-025-05903-1. PMID: 40705076. - Design / duration: Acute crossover; Single sessions. - Population / baseline: 13 trained middle-distance runners, 9 men. - Verified extraction: 15x400 m greater muscle deoxygenation than 6x1 km. 1 km longer time >90% HRpeak. RPE, lactate, and peak HR similar. - Limitations: Runners. Acute. Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT50 — Effects of 12 weeks of block periodization on performance and performance indices in well-trained cyclists

Rønnestad BR, Ellefsen S, Nygaard H, et al.; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.12016. PMID: 23134196. - Design / duration: 12-week block vs two weekly HIT sessions, volume matched; 12 weeks. - Population / baseline: Well-trained cyclists, n=8 and 7. - Verified extraction: Block VO2max +8.8±5.9% vs traditional +3.7±2.9%. Interval length not in abstract. - Limitations: Abstract only. Small. Format unspecified. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT51 — The interactions of intensity, frequency and duration of exercise training in altering cardiorespiratory fitness

Wenger HA, Bell GJ; 1986. Original source. Access: metadata; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.2165/00007256-198603050-00004. PMID: 3529283. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Historical training studies. - Verified extraction: Cited by Odden 2024 as arguing VO2max change increases as intensity rises toward 100% VO2max, based on converted heart-rate intensities, with statistics not presented. This brief did not re-extract the 1986 statistics. - Limitations: Metadata plus Odden's description. Not an independent re-analysis. - Identity only: this record does not verify a study result; any quantitative wording must be traced to an actually retrieved abstract/full text. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

INT52 — Case studies in physiology: temporal changes in determinants of aerobic performance in an individual going from alpine skier to world junior champion time trial cyclist

Rønnestad BR, Hansen J, Stensløkken L, Joyner MJ, Lundby C; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00798.2018. PMID: 31194601. - Design / duration: Case study; 3 years of bike-specific training. - Population / baseline: One male athlete. - Verified extraction: VO2max rose from 74.6 to 96.7 mL/kg/min. Not an interval work-rate study. Recorded because it was a false candidate for the work-rate descriptor. - Limitations: n=1. Irrelevant to format comparison except as a rejected match. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1

INT53 — Influence of immune and nutritional biomarkers on illness risk during interval training

Hanstock HG, Govus AD, Stenqvist TB, Melin AK, Sylta Ø, Torstveit MK; 2020. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0527. PMID: 31034260. - Design / duration: Randomized 4-week comparison of three HIT prescriptions; primary outcomes were illness and biomarkers, not performance; 12 supervised HIT sessions over 4 weeks, plus ad libitum low-intensity training. - Population / baseline: 27 well-trained male cyclists and triathletes enrolled; 25 analyzed, age 29.9±9.1, VO2peak 64.0±6.4 mL/kg/min, performance level 3-4. - Verified extraction: LI: 4x8 min, 2 min recovery, 32 min work. SI1: 4x(12x40/20), 32 min work if 20 s rests excluded. SI2: 4x(8x40/20), 32 min only if 20 s rests counted as work. Isoeffort; recovery 50% of work power. Session HR about 86-87% HRmax and median RPE 17 did not differ. Cohort VO2peak increased moderately (d=0.65, 90% CI 0.16 to 1.13); magnitude not significantly different between groups. Group pre/post means are in a figure and were not extracted. No URI incidence, duration, or severity difference between groups. - Limitations: Illness was the primary question. Small cells, n per arm not stated in text. Male only. Accepted manuscript, not the copyedited journal version. Does not show equivalence of formats. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

INT54 — Optimizing interval training at power output associated with peak oxygen uptake in well-trained cyclists

Rønnestad BR, Hansen J; 2016. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182a73e8a. PMID: 23942167. Date note: Verified journal issue is 2016; an earlier citation/DOI date was 2013. The full-text acute experiment is not a 2013 longitudinal trial. - Design / duration: Acute randomized-order crossover to exhaustion; not a training study; Three sessions to exhaustion within 3 weeks. - Population / baseline: 13 well-trained male cyclists, VO2peak 66.7±6.1 mL/kg/min, at least 6 h/week. - Verified extraction: Work at MAP (375±41 W), recovery 50% MAP for half the work duration. Tmax 340±108 s. 30/15 time ≥90% VO2peak 678±270 s vs 397±156 s for 50% Tmax and 366±127 s for 80% Tmax (p<0.01). Time to exhaustion 1385±547 vs 827±283 vs 642±191 s. Peak RPE about 19 in all. In n=6, time ≥90% peak stroke volume longer in 30 s (787±447 vs 510±336 s). Authors: whether this produces larger training adaptations remained to be investigated. - Limitations: Acute only. To exhaustion, not a fixed session. Male only. Journal issue 2016; DOI registered 2013. Stroke volume subset n=6. - Relevant chapters: VO₂-focused intervals - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

Threshold, durability and long rides

DUR04 — The reliability of 4-minute and 20-minute time trials and their relationships to functional threshold power in trained cyclists

MacInnis MJ; Thomas ACQ; Phillips SM; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0100. PMID: 29809063. - Design / duration: Reliability, one 60-min trial; Acute. - Population / baseline: 8 trained men, VO2max 71±5. - Verified extraction: 4-min TEM 8.1 W ICC 0.98; 20-min TEM 4.6 W ICC 0.99; CP from 4+20 TEM 6.5 W. Strong association with 60-min mean 309±26 W. Not a claim that 95% of 20 min equals 60 min. - Limitations: n=8, one 60-min trial. Abstract. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides, Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: DUR04, MON30. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

DUR05 — Is the FTP Test a Reliable, Reproducible and Functional Assessment Tool in Highly-Trained Athletes?

McGrath E, Mahony N, Fleming N, Donne B; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.70252/RQOO7391. PMID: 31839854. - Design / duration: Repeated 20-min FTP and 60-min at 95% of 20-min power; Successive weeks. - Population / baseline: 19 highly trained athletes, Wattbike. - Verified extraction: 20-min agreement bias +2 W, LoA +13 to -17 W. 17/19 completed 60 min at computed FTP in quasi-steady state; +5% destabilised lactate. - Limitations: Non-randomised; abstract only; ergometer-specific. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR06 — Road cycle TT performance: Relationship to the power-duration model and association with FTP

Morgan PT, Black MI, Bailey SJ, Jones AM, Vanhatalo A; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2018.1535772. PMID: 30387374. - Design / duration: CP from self-paced TTs vs FTP and 16.1 km road TT; Acute. - Population / baseline: 12 competitive male cyclists. - Verified extraction: CP+W' predicted 16.1 km time. FTP vs CP LoA +30 to -36 W; not interchangeable. - Limitations: Abstract only; small n. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR09 — Critical Power and Maximal Lactate Steady State in Cycling: Watts the Difference?

Caen K, Poole DC, Vanhatalo A, Jones AM; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-024-02075-4. PMID: 39196486. - Design / duration: Methods review; N/A. - Population / baseline: N/A. - Verified extraction: Published CP-MLSS gaps partly reflect inappropriate methods; with strict criteria the difference may shrink to a few watts. - Limitations: Abstract only; integrates laboratory data not fully reported in the abstract. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR10 — Equivalence between FTP and RCP: Assessment of association, agreement and sex effect

Engelke P, Vivan L, Dos Anjos Souza VR, de Lira CAB, Weiss K, Rosemann T, Knechtle B, Andrade MS; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.clinsp.2026.100977. PMID: 42060964. - Design / duration: Association and Bland-Altman; Acute, tests ≥72 h apart. - Population / baseline: 49 amateur triathletes, male and female. - Verified extraction: FTP and RCP r=0.916; relationship independent of sex; not interchangeable. - Limitations: Abstract only; triathletes not cyclists only. First publication 2026-04-29. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR22 — Physiological and subjective measures of exercise intensity cycling at 55% and 85% of functional threshold power

Denham J, Scott-Hamilton J, Mills D; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2026.2673477. PMID: 42148565. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover, two 30-min bouts; Acute. - Population / baseline: 12 healthy males. - Verified extraction: 55% FTP moderate and 85% FTP vigorous on physiological and subjective measures. FTP alone underestimated demand at ≥85% FTP. - Limitations: Not described as trained cyclists; abstract only. First publication 2026-05-18. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR25 — Critical Power: An Important Fatigue Threshold in Exercise Physiology

Poole DC, Burnley M, Vanhatalo A, Rossiter HB, Jones AM; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000939. PMID: 27031742. - Design / duration: Review; N/A. - Population / baseline: N/A. - Verified extraction: CP is the heavy-severe boundary integrating respiratory, metabolic and contractile responses. Intensity relative to CP is more informative than %VO2max alone. - Limitations: Abstract only. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR26 — The Application of Critical Power, the Work Capacity above Critical Power (W'), and its Reconstitution: A Narrative Review

Chorley A, Lamb KL; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/sports8090123. PMID: 32899777. - Design / duration: Narrative review; N/A. - Population / baseline: N/A. - Verified extraction: W' is finite work above CP and reconstitutes below CP. Used only as acute rationale for over-unders, not as training evidence. - Limitations: Abstract used; full text not re-read. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR27 — Dynamics of the power-duration relationship during prolonged endurance exercise and influence of carbohydrate ingestion

Clark IE, Vanhatalo A, Thompson C, Joseph C, Black MI, Blackwell JR, Wylie LJ, Tan R, Bailey SJ, Wilkins BW, Kirby BS, Jones AM; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00207.2019. PMID: 31295069. - Design / duration: Acute crossover, 3-min all-out after 40, 80, 120 min heavy cycling, placebo vs 60 g/h CHO; Acute. - Population / baseline: 16 participants, male per PubMed MeSH. - Verified extraction: EP unchanged at 40 min (268±39) and 80 min (260±40) vs control 260±37; after 2 h 236±47 W (-9%). CHO after 2 h 254±49 W. WEP lower by 80 min (14.7±2.9 kJ) and 2 h (13.8±2.7 vs 17.9±3.3); CHO did not preserve WEP (13.5±3.4 kJ). - Limitations: 3-min test estimates CP; glycogen statement is in the new-and-noteworthy, biopsy details not fully in the abstract. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

DUR28 — Changes in the power-duration relationship following prolonged exercise: estimation using conventional and all-out protocols and relationship with muscle glycogen

Clark IE, Vanhatalo A, Thompson C, Wylie LJ, Bailey SJ, Kirby BS, Wilkins BW, Jones AM; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00031.2019. PMID: 30995104. - Design / duration: Acute, conventional CP and 3-min test after 2 h heavy, biopsies; Acute. - Population / baseline: 14 participants. - Verified extraction: Fatigued CP/EP ~11% lower and W' ~20% lower than control. Changes not correlated with glycogen (r=0.19 and 0.07). - Limitations: Abstract only; control EP 287±46 W in this paper, different sample from the CHO paper. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR29 — The fourth dimension: physiological resilience as an independent determinant of endurance exercise performance

Jones AM; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/JP284205. PMID: 37606604. - Design / duration: Review; N/A. - Population / baseline: N/A. - Verified extraction: CP may fall ~10% after 2 h heavy cycling, individual range <1% to ~32%. Argues resilience is a fourth determinant. - Limitations: Abstract only; individual range is the author's summary of prior work. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR30 — Physiological Resilience: What Is It and How Might It Be Trained?

Jones AM, Kirby BS; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.70032. PMID: 40024804. - Design / duration: Narrative review; N/A. - Population / baseline: N/A. - Verified extraction: No longitudinal study has identified the best resilience programme. Infers from elite practice, cross-sectional comparisons, and strength studies. Mechanisms unresolved. - Limitations: Secondary paraphrases of some cited trials were not all re-extracted; those trials are cited separately only when retrieved. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR31 — Prolonged cycling reduces power output at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition

Stevenson JD, Kilding AE, Plews DJ, Maunder E; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-05036-9. PMID: 36127418. - Design / duration: Acute, step test before and after 2 h at 90% VT1; Acute. - Population / baseline: 14 endurance-trained cyclists/triathletes, 13 men 1 woman, VO2peak 59.9±6.8. - Verified extraction: VT1 power 217±42 to 196±42 W. HR at VT1 142±9 to 151±12 bpm. - Limitations: Abstract only for numbers used, although PMC full text exists. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR32 — Durability of the moderate-to-heavy-intensity transition is related to the effects of prolonged exercise on severe-intensity performance

Hamilton K, Kilding AE, Plews DJ, Mildenhall MJ, Waldron M, Charoensap T, Cox TH, Brick MJ, Leigh WB, Maunder E; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05459-6. PMID: 38546844. - Design / duration: Acute, 5-min TT and VT1 with and without 150 min prior moderate cycling; resting biopsy; Acute. - Population / baseline: 13 well-trained cyclists/triathletes, VO2peak 57.3±4.8, 12±2.1 h/week. - Verified extraction: VT1 211±40 to 198±39 W (-6±7%). 5-min TT 333±75 to 302±63 W (-9±10%). 5-min drop associated with VT1 durability rs=0.719. No relation to carnosine, citrate synthase or complex I. - Limitations: Abstract only; sex mix not stated. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR33 — Enhanced durability predicts success in amateur road cycling: evidence of power output declines

Barsumyan A, Soost C, Burchard R; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2025.1530162. PMID: 40438340. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional comparison after a home fatigue protocol; Acute test, not a training intervention. - Population / baseline: 14 amateur cyclists, age 37.5±5.7, VO2max 52.0±7.4, 9.6±2.2 h/week; groups also differed in mass, VO2max and volume. - Verified extraction: After 1000 kJ, adjusted 20-min power drop 6.5% successful vs 12.5% less successful (ANCOVA p=0.033). No 5-min group difference. A priori n=26 not met. Authors say specific trainability remains for further research. - Limitations: Small, underpowered, success definition mixed, power-meter brands differed, unsupervised adherence. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR34 — Durability as an independent parameter of endurance performance in cycling

Barsumyan A, Soost C, Shyla R, Graw JA, Bliemel C, Burchard R; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1186/s13102-025-01238-8. PMID: 40640875. - Design / duration: Fresh vs fatigued 5- and 20-min tests, home trainers; Acute. - Population / baseline: 20 well-trained amateur men, 34.6±7.3 y, 74.4±8.7 kg, 8.21±2 h/week, 3.4±1.06 years in endurance sport. - Verified extraction: After 1000 kJ at 80% of fresh 20-min power: 20-min -10.1±6.5%, 5-min -10.8±7.8%. Regression on VO2max, relative FTP, volume, years and age not significant. Authors note low power. - Limitations: Male; modest training age; 1000 kJ not mass-normalised in the protocol; not a training study. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR35 — Substrate utilization and durability during prolonged intermittent exercise in elite road cyclists

Ørtenblad N, Zachariassen M, Nielsen J, Gejl KD; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05437-y. PMID: 38441690. - Design / duration: Acute 4 h intermittent ride then 6-min TT; Acute. - Population / baseline: 12 elite/professional cyclists, VO2peak 73.6 ml/kg/min. - Verified extraction: 6-min power -10% [4, 15], peak power -6% [0, 6] despite 100 g/h CHO. Drop not predicted by fresh LT1, GE, MFO, VO2peak or in-ride fat oxidation. - Limitations: Abstract only; CI formatting partly truncated. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR36 — Is all work the same? Performance after accumulated work of differing intensities in male professional cyclists

Mateo-March M, Leo P, Muriel X, Javaloyes A, Mujika I, Barranco-Gil D, Pallarés JG, Lucia A, Valenzuela PL; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2024.03.005. PMID: 38604818. - Design / duration: Observational field, work above vs below CP; Season. - Population / baseline: 17 male professional cyclists. - Verified extraction: CP fell 2.2%, 6.1% and 16.2% after 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 kJ/kg above CP. Work-matched below-CP efforts did not similarly impair performance. MMP declines of about 2-4% reported after above-CP work. - Limitations: Abstract truncated in places; observational; professionals only. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR37 — The Record Power Profile of Male Professional Cyclists: Fatigue Matters

Mateo-March M, Valenzuela PL, Muriel X, Gandia-Soriano A, Zabala M, Lucia A, Pallares JG, Barranco-Gil D; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0403. PMID: 35240578. - Design / duration: Database of record MMP after 0, 15, 25, 35, 45 kJ/kg; Multi-season observational. - Population / baseline: 112 male professionals, ProTeam and WorldTour, 2013-2021. - Verified extraction: Fatigue changes the record power profile and separating categories. Percent declines were not in the retrieved abstract. - Limitations: Abstract truncated before magnitudes; racing confounders. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR38 — Reliability of the durability concept in professional cyclists: a field-based study

Mateo-March M, Barranco-Gil D, Hernández-Belmonte A, Javaloyes A, Muriel X, Pallarés JG, Lucia A, Valenzuela PL; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1055/a-2555-8961. PMID: 40373793. - Design / duration: Repeatability of best MMP after 0-40 kJ/kg; Season. - Population / baseline: 18 professional cyclists, 27±4 y. - Verified extraction: Progressive MMP decline after higher accumulated work, particularly after 20 kJ/kg. Repeatability high for longer efforts, lowest for 10 s. Abstract reports ICC context as high but the numeric ICC was truncated. - Limitations: Abstract only; does not prove trainability. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR39 — Power Road-Derived Physical Performance Parameters in Junior, Under-23, and Professional Road Cycling Climbers

Gallo G, Mateo-March M, Leo P, Campos-Donaire A, Gandia-Soriano A, Giorgi A, Faelli E, Ruggeri P, Codella R, Mujika I, Filipas L; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0554. PMID: 35483700. - Design / duration: Retrospective field comparison; 2016-19 seasons. - Population / baseline: 53 male climbers: 15 junior, 21 U23, 17 professional. - Verified extraction: High-ranked juniors separated by fresh record power. High-ranked U23 and pros separated by smaller percentage decline after 20-50 kJ/kg. Pros declined less than U23 high-ranked. - Limitations: Abstract only; cross-sectional; selection and racing confounders. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR40 — Is intensity the most important factor in determining the amount of prior work accumulated that affects cyclists' acute durability? A systematic review

Sánchez-Jiménez JL, Salas-Montoro JA, Mateo-March M, Priego-Quesada JI, Zabala M, Pérez-Díaz JJ; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-025-05885-0. PMID: 40613880. - Design / duration: Systematic review, 21 studies, search 18 Sep 2024; Acute studies. - Population / baseline: Cyclists, mixed level. - Verified extraction: Above-CP prior work: 10-20% power drops after 2.5-15 kJ/kg. Below-CP work often smaller drops at higher volumes. kJ alone insufficient. Practical 5x8 suggestion cites a fatigue protocol, not a training trial. - Limitations: Protocol heterogeneity; about 30% of studies found by hand search; does not include 2025-2026 trials after the search date. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR41 — The Relationship between Physiological Characteristics and Durability in Male Professional Cyclists

Spragg J, Leo P, Swart J; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000003024. PMID: 35977108. - Design / duration: Fresh vs fatigued CP after 5x8 min at 105-110% CP; Acute. - Population / baseline: 10 young professional men, age 19.2±0.8, VO2max 74.4±4.8, CP 5.6±0.6 W/kg. - Verified extraction: Delta CP correlated with relative peak power r=0.891. Magnitude of the CP drop was not in the retrieved abstract. - Limitations: Abstract truncated; very young professionals; n=10. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR43 — Training Characteristics Related to (the Changes in) Durability in Semiprofessional Cyclists

Voet JG, van Erp T, Viribay A, de Koning JJ, Lamberts RP; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2024-0321. PMID: 40054482. - Design / duration: Observational 8-week coach-led preseason, fresh and fatigued 1- and 10-min TTs; 8 weeks. - Population / baseline: 10 male semiprofessional cyclists, 22±4 y, 71.0±6.4 kg, LT2 347±30 W; training data n=9, 16.7±1.4 h/week. - Verified extraction: Fatigued 10-min +25 W (18 to 33; 7.3%); fresh 10-min +21 W (8 to 34; 6.4%); fatigued 1-min +20 W (5 to 36; 3.6%); fresh 1-min +16 W (1 to 31; 2.5%). Preload 38.6±4.6 kJ/kg. No single load metric predicted improvement. Authors state no direct effect of a polarised pattern on fatigued TT power was shown. - Limitations: Observational; small; one coach shared by half the sample; not 7-12 h amateurs. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR44 — Durability and Underlying Physiological Factors: How Do They Change Throughout a Cycling Season in Semiprofessional Cyclists?

Voet JG, Lamberts RP, Viribay A, de Koning JJ, van Erp T; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0543. PMID: 38871342. - Design / duration: Three lab visits across a season, fresh and after ~38 kJ/kg; Season. - Population / baseline: 16 male semiprofessional cyclists. - Verified extraction: Abstract: 1-min TT more sensitive to fatigue than 10-min; durability described as improving more than fresh maximal power. Percent changes not in the retrieved abstract. - Limitations: Abstract truncated; related to Voet 2025, not an independent method trial. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR45 — Durability is improved by both low and high intensity endurance training

Matomäki P, Heinonen OJ, Nummela A, Laukkanen J, Auvinen EP, Pirkola L, Kyröläinen H; 2023. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1128111. PMID: 36875044. - Design / duration: 10-week LIT vs HIT cycling; 10 weeks. - Population / baseline: 35 sedentary or recreationally active adults, 16 men 19 women. - Verified extraction: Composite durability improved in both groups (LIT g=0.49, HIT g=0.62), interaction p=0.42. Test was 3 h at 48% of pre-training VO2max. VO2max rose only after HIT. Drift changes were modest. - Limitations: Untrained; not transferable as an amateur prescription. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR46 — Strength training improves 5-min all-out performance following 185 min of cycling

Ronnestad BR, Hansen EA, Raastad T; 2011. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01035.x. PMID: 19903319. - Design / duration: Controlled intervention; same cohort as STR02; 12 weeks, same strength dose. - Population / baseline: Same 20 well-trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: 5-min power after 185 min at 44% maximal aerobic power rose from 371+/-9 to 400+/-13 W in E+S; no change in E. Late-ride VO2, HR, lactate, and RPE fell more in E+S. - Limitations: Not an independent replication. Steady submaximal preload, not a stochastic race. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides, Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1 - Citation aliases: DUR46, STR03. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

DUR47 — Effect of heavy strength training on thigh muscle cross-sectional area, performance determinants, and performance in well-trained cyclists

Ronnestad BR, Hansen EA, Raastad T; 2010. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-009-1307-z. PMID: 19960350. - Design / duration: Controlled training intervention, allocation method not stated as random in the abstract; 12 weeks; 4 lower-body exercises, 3x4-10RM, twice weekly. - Population / baseline: 20 well-trained cyclists; E+S n=11 men; E n=9 (7 men, 2 women). - Verified extraction: E+S increased thigh CSA, isometric force, Wingate peak power, power at 2 mmol/L, and 40-min mean power. VO2max rose similarly in both groups. Body mass did not rise with larger thigh. E 40-min power tended to improve (P=0.057). - Limitations: Small; companion to the 185-min paper; abstract-only. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides, Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: DUR47, STR02. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

DUR49 — Durability as an index of endurance exercise performance: Methodological considerations

Hunter B, Maunder E, Jones AM, Gallo G, Muniz-Pumares D; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/EP092120. PMID: 40150840. - Design / duration: Methods review; N/A. - Population / baseline: N/A. - Verified extraction: Preload intensity and duration change the durability profile. Nutrition and environment should be controlled if athletes are compared. - Limitations: Review, not new data. Full text skimmed. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR50 — What is a cycling race simulation anyway: a review on protocols to assess durability in cycling

Peeters WM, Barrett M, Podlogar T; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-025-05725-1. PMID: 39953333. - Design / duration: Review of race-simulation protocols, search 7 Jan 2024; N/A. - Population / baseline: Cycling protocols with ≥90 min variable preload then a performance test. - Verified extraction: Protocols are heterogeneous. Intensity of accumulated work matters. Mechanisms and improving interventions are not established by this review. - Limitations: Protocol review, not a training meta-analysis. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR51 — Graded Carbohydrate Ingestion up to 120 g·h−1 Attenuates the Reduction in Critical Power Following 3 h of Moderate-Intensity Exercise in a Dose-Dependent Manner

Norte BR, Slinn MM, Johnson KO, Mahon E, Shepherd SO, Strauss JA, Louis JB; 2026. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.70326. PMID: 42322010. - Design / duration: Crossover, 3 h at 95% GET with 0, 60 or 120 g/h CHO, 3-min CP estimate; Acute; first publication 2026-06-01. - Population / baseline: 16 endurance-trained cyclists/triathletes, VO2max 51.8±6.8. - Verified extraction: After 24 h of 8 g/kg CHO plus a 2 g/kg meal, 3 h at 95% of estimated gas-exchange threshold (GET; first threshold, moderate domain, not FTP). Estimated CP: fresh 277±27 W; water 236±30; 60 g/h 257±28; 120 g/h 266±29. W' fell with no CHO-condition difference. 90 g/h was not tested. Six GI symptoms every 30 min (Figure 7): only 4/16 participants scored ≥4 and <8 in the 60 or 120 g/h conditions. Cumulative scores higher at 120 vs water (p=0.005; 18 [0-81] vs 6 [0-56]) but 120 vs 60 and 60 vs water not significant. Peak regurgitation, fullness and cramps higher at 120 vs water only; no 120-vs-60 difference. - Limitations: 3-min estimate of CP; modest VO2max; n=16; 90 g/h not tested. Section heading says GI discomfort was not altered, but post hoc tests show 120 g/h worse than water on cumulative score and three peak symptoms. Not universal tolerance or intolerance. GET preload is not an FTP ride. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides, Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3 - Citation aliases: DUR51, FUEL06. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

DUR52 — Low carbohydrate availability reduces power output at the moderate-to-heavy transition, impairs efficiency, and increases median power frequency during cycling in females

Main E, Yoon S, James SL, Mellor KM, Brick MJ, Leigh WB, Maunder E; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-026-06260-3. PMID: 42228164. - Design / duration: Randomised counterbalanced crossover; Acute: glycogen depletion ~24 h prior, then incremental and 3-min all-out; CHO ≥9 vs ≤1 g/kg. - Population / baseline: 9 well-trained female cyclists. - Verified extraction: Original abstract: VT1 power 133 ± 24 W (low CHO) vs 152 ± 28 W (high), difference −19 ± 14 W; efficiency lower in low; no difference in lactate-threshold power or 3-min all-out end-test power. Wattage is original-abstract only and was not revised or confirmed by the correction (FUEL33). - Limitations: Acute, not training. Wattage figures are abstract extracts. Correction fixes a duplicated figure and does not state a numeric results change. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides, Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2, source 3, source 4 - Citation aliases: DUR52, FUEL32. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

DUR53 — Effects of fasted vs fed-state exercise on performance and post-exercise metabolism: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Aird TP, Davies RW, Carson BP; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.13054. PMID: 29315892. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis, 46 studies; Mostly acute. - Population / baseline: Mixed. - Verified extraction: Pre-exercise feeding enhanced prolonged aerobic performance (P=0.012) but not shorter efforts. Fasted exercise increased post-exercise FFAs. Chronic performance benefit not established. - Limitations: Abstract only; mixed populations. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR54 — Enhanced Endurance Performance by Periodization of Carbohydrate Intake: Sleep Low Strategy

Marquet LA, Brisswalter J, Louis J, Tiollier E, Burke LM, Hawley JA, Hausswirth C; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000823. PMID: 26741119. - Design / duration: 3-week sleep-low vs high availability, same daily CHO 6 g/kg; 3 weeks. - Population / baseline: 21 triathletes, VO2max 58.7±5.7. - Verified extraction: Submaximal cycling efficiency change +11±15% sleep-low vs +1.4±9.3% control. Also reported gains in supramaximal cycling and 10 km run; those percentages were not in the retrieved abstract. - Limitations: Not a durability outcome; triathletes; abstract only; large variance. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides, Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: DUR54, FUEL41. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

DUR55 — No superior adaptations to carbohydrate periodization in elite endurance athletes

Gejl KD, Thams LB, Hansen M, et al.; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000001377. PMID: 28723843. - Design / duration: Matched randomised 4-week training; 4 weeks, CHO manipulation 3 days/week. - Population / baseline: 26 male elite endurance athletes, VO2max 65. - Verified extraction: VO2max and 30-min TT power rose ~5% in both high and low groups. No superior effect of restriction. - Limitations: Abstract-only. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides, Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: DUR55, FUEL37. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

DUR56 — Fuel for the work required: carbohydrate periodization and the glycogen threshold hypothesis

Impey SG, Hearris MA, Hammond KM, et al.; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-018-0867-7. PMID: 29453741. - Design / duration: Theoretical review of train-low studies; Review. - Population / baseline: Counts of train-low studies, mixed training status. - Verified extraction: Signalling, gene expression, and enzyme increases often reported with train-low, especially in a glycogen window. Performance improved in a minority of counted studies (37% of 11 improved; 63% no change, as stated). - Limitations: Study counts are the authors' synthesis, not a new meta-analysis of performance. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides, Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2 - Citation aliases: DUR56, FUEL40. See JSON for per-chapter extractions; aliases are not independent studies.

DUR58 — The Effect of 90 and 120 Min of Running on the Determinants of Endurance Performance in Well-Trained Male Marathon Runners

Zanini M, Folland JP, Blagrove RC; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.70076. PMID: 40375575. - Design / duration: Acute, unfatigued vs after 90 and 120 min heavy-domain running; Acute. - Population / baseline: 14 trained male marathoners, VO2max 63.1±5.8, marathon ~2:47. - Verified extraction: VO2peak -3.1% after 90 min and -7.1% after 120 min. Oxygen cost +4.2% and +5.8%. - Limitations: Running, not cycling; abstract only. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

DUR59 — Defining physiological resilience and durability in the context of endurance performance modeling

Zanini M, Jones AM, Nybo L; 2025. Original source. Access: metadata; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00671.2025. PMID: 41396096. - Design / duration: Commentary; N/A. - Population / baseline: N/A. - Verified extraction: Title and authorship only. No abstract was available in Europe PMC on the check date, so no results are used. - Limitations: Metadata only. - Identity only: this record does not verify a study result; any quantitative wording must be traced to an actually retrieved abstract/full text. - Relevant chapters: Threshold, durability and long rides - Retrieval routes: source 1

Fueling and energy availability

FUEL01 — Systematic review: Carbohydrate supplementation on exercise performance or capacity of varying durations

Stellingwerff T, Cox GR; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2014-0027. PMID: 24951297. - Design / duration: Systematic review of randomised CHO vs placebo performance studies; Varied; relationship with exercise duration. - Population / baseline: 679 subjects across 61 studies; not cycling-only. - Verified extraction: 82% of studies showed a performance benefit vs placebo; percent gain correlated with exercise duration. Beyond about 2 h, high delivery (>90 g/h) and multiple-transportable CHO are discussed; near 1 h, oral exposure is the proposed mechanism. - Limitations: Includes non-cycling endurance protocols; not a dose-response meta-analysis of 60 vs 90 vs 120 g/h. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL02 — Carbohydrates for training and competition

Burke LM, Hawley JA, Wong SH, Jeukendrup AE; 2011. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2011.585473. PMID: 21660838. - Design / duration: Consensus-style review; Event-scaled. - Population / baseline: Endurance athletes; recommendations not a single trial. - Verified extraction: Small amounts or mouth rinse for ~1 h; 30-60 g/h for longer sports; up to 90 g/h for events >2.5 h using blends. Whether extra train-low strategies improve performance in well-trained athletes was described as unclear. - Limitations: Review, not a new trial. Daily g/kg bands were not in the retrieved abstract. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL03 — A step towards personalized sports nutrition: carbohydrate intake during exercise

Jeukendrup A; 2014. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-014-0148-z. PMID: 24791914. - Design / duration: Narrative review, open full text used for transporter sentence; Scaled by exercise duration. - Population / baseline: Endurance athletes. - Verified extraction: Single carbohydrate oxidised up to ~60 g/h (SGLT1 saturation stated in full text). ~90 g/h for ultra-endurance requires multiple transportable carbohydrates. Advice should be lowered when absolute intensity is low. Author also stated advice independent of body weight; later body-size data qualify that sentence. - Limitations: Review. Body-weight independence is challenged by Ijaz 2025 for exogenous glucose oxidation. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

FUEL04 — Curvilinear dose-response relationship of carbohydrate (0-120 g/h) and performance

Smith JW, Pascoe DD, Passe DH, Ruby BC, Stewart LK, Baker LB, Zachwieja JJ; 2013. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31827205d1. PMID: 22968309. - Design / duration: Multi-site double-blind crossover; 2 h constant load plus 20 km time trial. - Population / baseline: 51 cyclists and triathletes, 28 ± 7 years. - Verified extraction: Estimated incremental gains of 1.0% to 4.7% from 9 to 78 g/h, with diminishing returns above 78 g/h. Best mean performance near 78 g/h of 1:1:1 glucose-fructose-maltodextrin. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Not characterised as elite. One fluid rate (1 L/h). - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL05 — A narrative review of the high-carbohydrate fueling revolution (≥100 g/h) in the professional peloton

Wilson PB; 2026. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-025-02372-6. PMID: 41343040. - Design / duration: Narrative review; open full text read for key points and ACSM quotation; Single-session and multi-day racing discussed separately. - Population / baseline: Professional cycling context; synthesises laboratory trials. - Verified extraction: Experiments comparing ≥100 g/h with 60-90 g/h do not clearly show less endogenous carbohydrate use or better performance. Studies do not mimic multi-day stage racing. Possible risks include gut symptoms and, if over-applied in training, a smaller metabolic signal. Quotes 2016 ACSM statement that events ≥2.5 h are associated with better performance up to 90 g/h. - Limitations: Narrative review. Multi-day benefit is theoretical/observational, not an RCT. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

FUEL07 — Carbohydrate dose influences liver and muscle glycogen oxidation and performance during prolonged exercise

King AJ, O'Hara JP, Morrison DJ, Preston T, King RFGJ; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.14814/phy2.13555. PMID: 29333721. - Design / duration: Double-blind randomised crossover; 2 h at 77% VO2max plus 30 min time trial. - Population / baseline: 10 trained males. - Verified extraction: No linear dose-response. 90 g/h glucose-fructose was the most favourable time-trial condition versus 60, 75, and 112.5 g/h and placebo in the abstract conclusion. - Limitations: Abstract-only for numbers used here. Magnitude-based language in the abstract. Small n. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL08 — New horizons in carbohydrate research and application for endurance athletes

Podlogar T, Wallis GA; 2022. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01757-1. PMID: 36173597. - Design / duration: Narrative review; open full text used for SGLT1/GLUT5 and ratio paragraph; Review. - Population / baseline: Endurance athletes. - Verified extraction: Names SGLT1 and GLUT5. Recommends glucose-fructose mixtures beyond ~2.5 h at 60-90 g/h. Argues a ratio near 1:0.8 is superior for oxidation efficiency and gut comfort. Contemporary view: train-low has limited utility for performance benefits. - Limitations: Review interpretation of ratio superiority goes beyond the small primary trials. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL09 — Increased exogenous but unaltered endogenous carbohydrate oxidation with fructose-maltodextrin at 120 vs 90 g/h

Podlogar T, Bokal Š, Cirnski S, Wallis GA; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-05019-w. PMID: 35951130. - Design / duration: Crossover, stable-isotope oxidation; 3 h at 95% gas-exchange threshold, overnight fasted. - Population / baseline: 11 highly trained men, VO2peak 62.6 ± 7 mL/kg/min. - Verified extraction: Exogenous oxidation 1.51 ± 0.22 vs 1.29 ± 0.16 g/min (120 vs 90 g/h). Endogenous oxidation not different (2.15 ± 0.30 vs 2.20 ± 0.33 g/min). No performance test. Ratios also differed (0.8:1 vs 1:2). - Limitations: Low absolute intensity. Ratio and dose confounded. Not a performance trial. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL10 — Oxidation of combined ingestion of maltodextrins and fructose during exercise

Wallis GA, Rowlands DS, Shaw C, Jentjens RL, Jeukendrup AE; 2005. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000155399.23358.82. PMID: 15741841. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover; 150 min at 55% Wmax. - Population / baseline: 8 trained cyclists, VO2max 64.1 ± 3.1. - Verified extraction: Peak exogenous oxidation ~1.50 vs 1.06 g/min for maltodextrin+fructose vs maltodextrin at 1.8 g/min. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Small male sample. Oxidation, not a race. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL11 — Superior endurance performance with ingestion of multiple transportable carbohydrates

Currell K, Jeukendrup AE; 2008. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31815adf19. PMID: 18202575. - Design / duration: Crossover performance trial; 120 min at 55% Wmax plus ~1 h time trial. - Population / baseline: 8 trained male cyclists, VO2max 64.7 ± 3.9, Wmax 364 ± 31 W. - Verified extraction: Abstract conclusion: 2:1 glucose:fructose at 1.8 g/min was 8% faster than isocaloric glucose and 19% faster than water. Reported completion times in the abstract conflict with that direction and were not used. - Limitations: Abstract-only. n=8. Time figures internally inconsistent. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL12 — Fructose-maltodextrin ratio differentially affects exogenous carbohydrate oxidation, gut comfort, and performance

O'Brien WJ, Rowlands DS; 2011. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00419.2010. PMID: 21071509. - Design / duration: Randomised double-blind crossover; 150 min at 50% peak power then incremental test. - Population / baseline: 10 cyclists. - Verified extraction: At 1.8 g/min, 0.8 fructose:maltodextrin had small oxidation advantages vs 0.5 and 1.25 and the lowest gut-symptom increases. Moderate peak-power improvements for 0.8 and 1.25 vs 0.5. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Small sample. Magnitude-based inference. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL13 — Fructose-maltodextrin ratio governs exogenous and other CHO oxidation and performance

O'Brien WJ, Stannard SR, Clarke JA, Rowlands DS; 2013. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31828e12d4. PMID: 23949097. - Design / duration: Crossover; 2 h at 57% peak power then 10 sprints. - Population / baseline: 12 male cyclists. - Verified extraction: 0.8 ratio had higher exogenous CHO oxidation efficiency and moderately higher sprint power than 0.5 and 1.25. Fluid-absorption effects inconclusive. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Sprint outcome, not a long time trial. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL14 — Fructose-glucose composite carbohydrates and endurance performance: critical review

Rowlands DS, Houltham S, Musa-Veloso K, Brown F, Paulionis L, Bailey D; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-015-0381-0. PMID: 26373645. - Design / duration: Critical review of performance studies; 2.5-3.0 h estimates. - Population / baseline: 14 studies, mostly male cycling, ~2.5-3 h. - Verified extraction: 0.5-1.0:1 fructose:glucose/maltodextrin at 1.3-2.4 g/min associated with 1-9% mean-power gains vs isocaloric single saccharide. Larger effects at higher ingestion rates. 0.8:1 highlighted at 1.5-1.8 g/min. - Limitations: Mostly men. Not a formal meta-analysis with a single pooled estimate in the abstract. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL15 — Multiple transportable carbohydrates enhance gastric emptying and fluid delivery

Jeukendrup AE, Moseley L; 2010. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00862.x. PMID: 19000102. - Design / duration: Crossover; 120 min cycling at 61% VO2max. - Population / baseline: 8 men, VO2max 62.6 ± 2.5. - Verified extraction: Glucose+fructose (2:1, 1.5 g/min) emptied faster and delivered fluid faster than glucose alone, and attenuated heart-rate rise. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Delivery, not performance. Small n. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL16 — Fructose and sucrose intake increase exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during exercise

Trommelen J, Fuchs CJ, Beelen M, Lenaerts K, Jeukendrup AE, Cermak NM, van Loon LJ; 2017. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/nu9020167. PMID: 28230742. - Design / duration: Crossover, stable isotope; 180 min at 50% Wmax. - Population / baseline: 10 trained male cyclists, VO2peak 65 ± 2. - Verified extraction: Ten trained men, 180 min at 50% Wmax, 1.8 g/min (108 g/h). Peak exogenous oxidation 0.96 ± 0.06 g/min glucose alone; 1.40 ± 0.06 for 1.2 g/min glucose + 0.6 g/min fructose; 1.29 ± 0.07 for 0.6 g/min glucose + 1.2 g/min sucrose. The sucrose arm hydrolyses to the same overall 2:1 glucose:fructose as the free mix. Sucrose alone was not tested. Both mixed arms about 46% above glucose alone. - Limitations: Not a sucrose-alone versus free glucose-plus-fructose comparison. Moderate intensity. Men only. Open access PMC5331598. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

FUEL17 — Oxidation of exogenous glucose, sucrose, and maltose during prolonged cycling

Jentjens RLPG, Venables MC, Jeukendrup AE; 2004. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01023.2003. PMID: 14657044. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover; 150 min at 50% Wmax. - Population / baseline: 9 trained male cyclists, VO2max 64 ± 2. - Verified extraction: Nine trained men. Glucose plus sucrose (1.2 + 0.6 g/min), not sucrose alone, peaked at 1.25 ± 0.07 g/min versus about 1.06 g/min for glucose or glucose plus maltose. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Not sucrose alone. Oxidation, not performance. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL18 — High oxidation rates from combined carbohydrates ingested during exercise

Jentjens RLPG, Achten J, Jeukendrup AE; 2004. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000139796.07843.1d. PMID: 15354037. - Design / duration: Crossover; 150 min at ~62% VO2max. - Population / baseline: 8 trained male cyclists, VO2max 64 ± 1. - Verified extraction: Glucose+fructose+sucrose at 2.4 g/min peaked near 1.70 g/min, about 44% above isocaloric glucose, with lower estimated endogenous CHO oxidation. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Very high intake. Men. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL19 — Oxidation of combined ingestion of glucose and sucrose during exercise

Jentjens RLPG, Shaw C, Birtles T, Waring RH, Harding LK, Jeukendrup AE; 2005. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2004.12.004. PMID: 15877291. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover; 120 min at 50% Wmax. - Population / baseline: 8 trained cyclists, VO2max 64 ± 2. - Verified extraction: High glucose+sucrose (2.4 g/min) peaked at 1.20 ± 0.07 g/min, above glucose, sucrose, or a moderate mix. Shows intake rate is not identical to oxidation rate. - Limitations: Abstract-only. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL20 — Ingestion of glucose or sucrose prevents liver but not muscle glycogen depletion during prolonged exercise in trained cyclists

Gonzalez JT, Fuchs CJ, Smith FE, et al.; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00376.2015. PMID: 26487008. - Design / duration: Crossover with 13C-MRS; 3 h at 50% peak power; 1.7 g/min (102 g/h). - Population / baseline: 14 cyclists; 4 also did water. - Verified extraction: Liver glycogen did not fall with glucose or sucrose; muscle glycogen fell similarly. Whole-body CHO use higher with sucrose (2.03 ± 0.43 vs 1.66 ± 0.36 g/min). Water reference: both liver and muscle glycogen fell. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Moderate intensity. Water arm n=4. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL21 — Sucrose ingestion after exhaustive exercise accelerates liver, but not muscle, glycogen repletion versus glucose

Fuchs CJ, Gonzalez JT, Beelen M, et al.; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01023.2015. PMID: 27013608. - Design / duration: Crossover, 13C-MRS; 5 h recovery after glycogen-depleting exercise; 1.5 g/kg/h. - Population / baseline: 15 well-trained male cyclists. - Verified extraction: Muscle glycogen rose similarly. Liver glycogen content rose faster with sucrose by 3.4 g/h (95% CI 1.6-5.1). - Limitations: Abstract-only. Men. High absolute intake. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL22 — Comparable exogenous CHO oxidation at 120 g/h from fluid, gel, jelly chew, or co-ingestion

Hearris MA, Pugh JN, Langan-Evans C, et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00091.2022. PMID: 35446596. - Design / duration: Randomised repeated measures; 180 min at 95% lactate threshold then capacity test. - Population / baseline: 9 trained males, after 8 g/kg CHO day and 2 g/kg pre-exercise meal. - Verified extraction: Peak exogenous oxidation ~1.56-1.66 g/min, not different by form. Minimal GI symptoms. Capacity test not different. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Small male sample. Not a 90 vs 120 comparison. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL23 — Gut-training: two weeks of repetitive gut-challenge during exercise

Costa RJS, Miall A, Khoo A, et al.; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2016-0453. PMID: 28177715. - Design / duration: Randomised gut-training intervention; 2 weeks; challenge was 2 h running at 60% VO2max. - Population / baseline: 25 endurance runners. - Verified extraction: Symptoms fell ~60% with carbohydrate gel or food training vs less with placebo. Distance test improved ~4-5% in CHO arms and not placebo. - Limitations: Runners, not cyclists. Abstract-only. Challenge dose was 30 g every 20 min, not 120 g/h. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL24 — Effect of gut-training and feeding-challenge on gastrointestinal status: systematic review

Martinez IG, Mika AS, Biesiekierski JR, Costa RJS; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01841-0. PMID: 37061651. - Design / duration: Systematic review, 8 studies; 4-28 days. - Population / baseline: Endurance exercise gut-training trials. - Verified extraction: Some 2-week CHO protocols reduced discomfort (~47% in two studies) and malabsorption (45-54% in two; no change in one). Several symptom results unclear. Gastric emptying and injury markers generally unchanged. - Limitations: Heterogeneous tools. Few studies. Mostly not cycling performance. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL25 — Short-term very high carbohydrate diet and gut-training have minor effects in highly trained endurance athletes

King AJ, Etxebarria N, Ross ML, et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/nu14091929. PMID: 35565896. - Design / duration: Two cohorts, intervention vs guideline-range CHO; 2 weeks diet plus gut training; 26 km race-walk or 35 km run. - Population / baseline: 19 elite male race walkers; 18 highly trained distance runners. - Verified extraction: Large individual variability. No clear performance advantage of pushing above guideline CHO. Some increase in upper-GI symptoms. Authors note confounding weight loss and fitness gains. - Limitations: Not a cycling RCT. Abstract-only for numbers used. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL26 — Daily training with high carbohydrate availability increases exogenous carbohydrate oxidation

Cox GR, Clark SA, Cox AJ, et al.; 2010. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00950.2009. PMID: 20466803. - Design / duration: Pair-matched 28-day training intervention; 28 days; tests were 100 min steady state plus 7 kJ/kg time trial. - Population / baseline: 16 endurance-trained cyclists or triathletes. - Verified extraction: High group increased citrate synthase and exogenous glucose oxidation. Performance improved ~6% in training; metabolic differences did not change the magnitude of the performance gain vs energy-matched low group. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Small groups (n=8). - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL27 — No performance effects of altered carbohydrate distribution during intense cycling

Podlogar T, Grmek B, Pungerčar L, Cirnski S, Goršek Šparovec T, Rowlands DS; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2025-0059. PMID: 41468185. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover; 180 min intermittent preload, 15 min all-out, sprint to exhaustion; 90 g/h. - Population / baseline: 12 trained male cyclists. - Verified extraction: Increasing, decreasing, and constant patterns did not clearly differ for 15-min performance or time to exhaustion (wide confidence limits). Decreasing pattern had higher CHO oxidation than constant and less late nausea than increasing. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Same total dose; not a dose trial. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL28 — Training with low muscle glycogen enhances fat metabolism in well-trained cyclists

Hulston CJ, Venables MC, Mann CH, et al.; 2010. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e3181dd5070. PMID: 20351596. - Design / duration: Pair-matched 3-week training; 3 weeks; 9 aerobic and 9 HIT sessions. - Population / baseline: 14 well-trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: Low-glycogen group interval power 297 ± 8 W vs 323 ± 9 W in high. Fat oxidation increased. Performance no more effective than high-glycogen training. P value for power contrast was truncated in the retrieved abstract. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Twice-daily schedule confounds glycogen with session spacing. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL29 — Skeletal muscle adaptation and performance responses to once a day versus twice every second day endurance training

Yeo WK, Paton CD, Garnham AP, Burke LM, Carey AL, Hawley JA; 2008. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.90882.2008. PMID: 18772325. - Design / duration: 3-week training comparison; 3 weeks. - Population / baseline: 14 endurance-trained cyclists/triathletes. - Verified extraction: Low schedule compromised high-intensity capacity. Selected mitochondrial markers and fat oxidation rose only in low. 1-h time trial after 60 min steady state improved ~10% in both groups. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Schedule and glycogen confounded. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL30 — Skeletal muscle adaptation: training twice every second day vs training once daily

Hansen AK, Fischer CP, Plomgaard P, Andersen JL, Saltin B, Pedersen BK; 2005. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00163.2004. PMID: 15361516. - Design / duration: 10-week one-leg training; 10 weeks knee-extensor training. - Population / baseline: 7 healthy untrained men. - Verified extraction: Time to exhaustion at 90% increased more in the low-glycogen leg. Maximal workload increase was identical. Not cycling and not trained. - Limitations: Untrained, single-leg, not cycling. Must not be transferred as a cyclist prescription. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL31 — Graded reductions in preexercise muscle glycogen impair exercise capacity but do not augment skeletal muscle cell signaling

Hearris MA, Hammond KM, Seaborne RA, et al.; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00913.2018. PMID: 31046515. - Design / duration: Repeated-measures sleep-low model; Evening depletion then next-morning capacity test. - Population / baseline: 8 men. - Verified extraction: Below ~300 mmol/kg dry weight, further ~100 mmol/kg reductions cut capacity at 80% peak power by about 20-50% without further augmenting measured signalling. - Limitations: Abstract-only. n=8. Not a training study. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL33 — Correction to Main et al. 2026 low carbohydrate availability in female cyclists

Main E, et al.; 2026. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-026-06340-4. PMID: 42440090. - Design / duration: Correction notice; n/a. - Population / baseline: Same as FUEL32. - Verified extraction: Springer HTML full text: 'In the original version of this article, Figure 2 was included twice as Figure 1 and Figure 2.' Replacement Figure 1 caption is the crossover schematic (High vs Low CHO, 5-14 days apart). No watts, VT1, or efficiency number is stated. The correction neither revises nor confirms the −19 ± 14 W abstract result. - Limitations: Figure correction only. Does not resolve the numeric results. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

FUEL34 — Carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged cycling improves next-day time trial performance

Clauss M, Skattebo Ø, et al.; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003264. PMID: 37535337. - Design / duration: Crossover, work-matched, isoenergetic diet; ~2.5 h to exhaustion plus intervals; next-day time trial; 1 g/kg/h CHO vs water during ride. - Population / baseline: 7 trained male cyclists, VO2max 66.8 ± 1.9. - Verified extraction: Next-day TT 41:49 ± 1:38 vs 42:50 ± 1:46 (small effect). Gross efficiency higher after CHO. Not a season-long adaptation study. - Limitations: Abstract-only. n=7. Order was placebo first then CHO in the abstract description. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL35 — Higher dietary carbohydrate content during intensified running training results in better maintenance of performance and mood

Achten J, Halson SL, Moseley L, Rayson MP, Casey A, Jeukendrup AE; 2004. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00973.2003. PMID: 14660506. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover; 11-day trials; last week intensified; 8.5 vs 5.4 g/kg/day. - Population / baseline: 7 trained runners, VO2max 64.7 ± 2.6. - Verified extraction: 16 km outdoor time worsened only on the lower-CHO diet (8.2 ± 2.1%). Mood deterioration more pronounced on lower CHO. - Limitations: Running, n=7, abstract-only. Not cycling. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL36 — Performance effects of periodized carbohydrate restriction in endurance trained athletes: systematic review and meta-analysis

Gejl KD, Nybo L; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1186/s12970-021-00435-3. PMID: 34001184. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; ≥1 week, restriction ≥3 times/week. - Population / baseline: 9 studies; VO2max ≥55 (women) or ≥60 (men) mL/kg/min. - Verified extraction: SMD 0.17 (95% CI -0.15 to 0.49), P=0.29 versus high carbohydrate availability. No demonstrated reliable average performance advantage. The interval permits a potentially meaningful positive effect, so this is not evidence that the true effect is zero. - Limitations: Nonsignificant pooled effect is imprecise, not proof of no benefit. Includes the positive Marquet trials. Heterogeneous protocols. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL38 — A five-week periodized carbohydrate diet does not improve maximal lactate steady-state exercise capacity versus a high-carbohydrate diet in well-trained cyclists

Prieto-Bellver G, Diaz-Lara J, Bishop DJ, et al.; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/nu16020318. PMID: 38276556. - Design / duration: Two-group training intervention, energy-matched; 5 weeks; 13 low-availability sessions in periodised group. - Population / baseline: 17 trained cyclists, VO2peak 70.8 ± 6.5. - Verified extraction: MLSS power rose in both groups. No between-group advantage for time to exhaustion, substrate oxidation, heart rate, or lactate. - Limitations: Not a crossover. Modest sample. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL39 — Responses to exercise with low carbohydrate availability on muscle glycogen and cell signaling: systematic review and meta-analysis

Diaz-Lara J, Prieto-Bellver G, Guadalupe-Grau A, Bishop DJ; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-024-02119-9. PMID: 39352665. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis of acute responses; Acute exercise with low vs high CHO availability. - Population / baseline: 19 randomised studies. - Verified extraction: PDK4 SMD 1.61 (0.80-2.42), GLUT4 1.38 (0.46-2.30), UCP3 2.05 (0.40-3.69). No overall effect on PGC-1α or TFAM mRNA. PGC-1α rose when glycogen gap exceeded ~200 mmol/kg dw. - Limitations: mRNA, not performance. Abstract-only. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL42 — Periodization of carbohydrate intake: short-term effect on performance

Marquet LA, Hausswirth C, Molle O, et al.; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/nu8120755. PMID: 27897989. - Design / duration: 1-week parallel intervention; 1 week, three sleep-low cycles; 6 g/kg/day. - Population / baseline: 11 trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: Sleep-low improved performance by a mean +3.2%. Selected metabolic markers did not explain it. - Limitations: Very small. Abstract p-value truncated. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL43 — Impact of sleeping with reduced glycogen stores on immunity and sleep in triathletes

Louis J, Marquet LA, Tiollier E, Bermon S, Hausswirth C, Brisswalter J; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-016-3446-3. PMID: 27491620. - Design / duration: 3-week parallel, same model as Marquet; 3 weeks. - Population / baseline: 21 triathletes. - Verified extraction: Minimal effects on selected immune markers, URTI incidence, and sleep. 10 km running improved in sleep-low (−1 min 13 s) in the abstract fragment. - Limitations: Not a safety proof for chronic low energy availability. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL44 — Low carbohydrate, high fat diet impairs exercise economy and negates the performance benefit from intensified training in elite race walkers

Burke LM, Ross ML, Garvican-Lewis LA, et al.; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/jp273230. PMID: 28012184. - Design / duration: 3-week controlled diet plus intensified training; 3 weeks. - Population / baseline: Elite race walkers; HCHO n=9 (8.6 g/kg CHO), PCHO n=10, LCHF n=10. - Verified extraction: VO2peak rose in all groups. 10 km improved 6.6% (HCHO) and 5.3% (PCHO); LCHF −1.6%. Economy worsened on LCHF at race-relevant speeds. - Limitations: Race walking, not cycling. Elite. Ketogenic diet is not session-level train-low. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL45 — Adaptation to a low carbohydrate high fat diet is rapid but impairs endurance exercise metabolism and performance despite enhanced glycogen availability

Burke LM, Whitfield J, Heikura IA, et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/jp280221. PMID: 32697366. - Design / duration: 5-6 day adaptation plus washout; 5-6 days LCHF or high CHO. - Population / baseline: 13 world-class male race walkers. - Verified extraction: Oxygen cost rose ~5-8% at race speeds after brief LCHF. 24 h CHO restoration did not restore performance. HCHO athletes improved; 6/7 LCHF athletes were slower. - Limitations: Race walking. Small n. Not amateur cycling. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL46 — Carbohydrate ingestion eliminates hypoglycemia and improves endurance performance in triathletes adapted to very-low- and high-carbohydrate diets

Prins PJ, Noakes TD, Buga A, et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00583.2024. PMID: 39786965. - Design / duration: Diet adaptation crossover or parallel as described in a partly garbled abstract; 6 weeks diet; exercise tests with 10 g/h CHO. - Population / baseline: Trained triathletes. - Verified extraction: Time-to-exhaustion similar across diets in the abstract conclusion. 10 g/h CHO improved time to exhaustion by 22% on both diets by preventing hypoglycemia. Authors say ≥4 weeks needed for LCHF metabolic normalisation. - Limitations: Abstract methods are incompletely parsed. Conflicts with Burke on performance cost of LCHF; outcomes differ (TTE vs race-pace economy). - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL47 — Does a low-carbohydrate diet impede endurance sports performance? Yes

Burke LM, Noakes TD; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2026.101268. PMID: 42070891. - Design / duration: Commentary; n/a. - Population / baseline: Cites trained-athlete trials. - Verified extraction: Argues LCHF is suboptimal at oxidative thresholds important in high-performance sport because fat oxidation yields less power, and that CHO during exercise often still helps keto-adapted athletes. - Limitations: Commentary, not new primary data. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL48 — Does a low-carbohydrate diet impede endurance sports performance? No

Noakes TD, Burke LM; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.ajcnut.2026.101269. PMID: 42070892. - Design / duration: Commentary; n/a. - Population / baseline: Cites 4-6 week diet trials including Prins-type findings. - Verified extraction: Argues several controlled comparisons found similar performance after LCHF vs high CHO, and that hypoglycemia rather than muscle glycogen is the main limiter in prolonged submaximal work. - Limitations: Commentary. Does not overturn Burke 2017/2021 economy findings. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL49 — Periodized carbohydrate intake influences metabolic flexibility and indices of running economy during endurance training in recreationally active males

Kripp AM, Feichter A, König D; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2025.1750042. PMID: 41624183. - Design / duration: 8-week randomised diet plus same endurance training; 8 weeks; one arm 4 weeks ≤50 g CHO/day then 4 weeks high CHO. - Population / baseline: 24 recreational male runners, VO2peak 51 ± 8. - Verified extraction: Performance improved over time with no significant between-group difference. Fat oxidation rose on LCHF and reversed after CHO reintroduction. - Limitations: Recreational runners, not trained cyclists. Some p-values truncated in the abstract. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL50 — Restoration of muscle glycogen and functional capacity: role of post-exercise carbohydrate and protein

Alghannam AF, Gonzalez JT, Betts JA; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/nu10020253. PMID: 29473893. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Short-term recovery 3-6 h emphasised. - Population / baseline: Recovery studies, mixed. - Verified extraction: ≥1.2 g/kg/h CHO maximises muscle glycogen repletion and repeated endurance capacity. Protein addition helps when CHO is ≤0.8 g/kg/h. - Limitations: Review. Not a new cyclist trial. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL51 — Glucose plus fructose ingestion for post-exercise recovery—greater than the sum of its parts?

Gonzalez JT, Fuchs CJ, Betts JA, van Loon LJ; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/nu9040344. PMID: 28358334. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Recovery. - Population / baseline: Post-exercise glycogen studies. - Verified extraction: ≥1.2 g/kg/h maximises muscle glycogen; glucose-fructose or sucrose does not further raise muscle repletion but approximately doubles liver repletion and reduces GI distress near ~1.2 g/min glucose absorption. - Limitations: Review. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL52 — Carbohydrate intake of 10 g/kg rapidly replenishes liver, but not muscle glycogen, during 12 h of recovery in well-trained cyclists

Fuchs CJ, Veeraiah P, Hermans WJH, et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/jp289115. PMID: 40836481. - Design / duration: Crossover with 13C-MRS and biopsies; 12 h recovery; 10 g/kg CHO vs fasted. - Population / baseline: 12 well-trained male cyclists, VO2peak 67 ± 5, Wmax 5.8 ± 0.7 W/kg. - Verified extraction: Liver glycogen exceeded pre-exercise values within 6 h. Muscle glycogen was 55% of pre-exercise at 6 h and 69% at 12 h. Fasting left both depleted. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Men. Severe depletion model. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL53 — ISSN position stand: nutrient timing

Kerksick CM, Arent S, Schoenfeld BJ, et al.; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1186/s12970-017-0189-4. PMID: 28919842. - Design / duration: Position stand; Daily and peri-exercise. - Population / baseline: Healthy exercising adults. - Verified extraction: Intact sentence used: glycogen stores maximised by 8-12 g carbohydrate/kg/day. Protein doses 0.25-0.40 g/kg or 20-40 g every 3-4 h. During-exercise 30-60 g/h sentence exists but is a conservative general range, not the best cyclist source. - Limitations: Parts of the Europe PMC abstract are corrupted. Only intact sentences used. Broader than trained cyclists. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL54 — ISSN position stand: protein and exercise

Jäger R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, et al.; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8. PMID: 28642676. - Design / duration: Position stand; Daily. - Population / baseline: Healthy exercising individuals. - Verified extraction: 1.4-2.0 g protein/kg/day for most exercising people; 0.25 g/kg or 20-40 g per serving. Endurance athletes should prioritise carbohydrate; protein may help offset damage. - Limitations: Not an endurance dose-finding trial. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL55 — Protein requirements are elevated in endurance athletes after exercise as determined by indicator amino acid oxidation

Kato H, Suzuki K, Bannai M, Moore DR; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0157406. PMID: 27322029. - Design / duration: IAAO breakpoint study; Acute 3-day controlled period. - Population / baseline: 6 male endurance-trained adults, VO2peak 60.3 ± 6.7, after a 20 km run. - Verified extraction: Recommended protein intake 1.83 g/kg/day from 13CO2 excretion (EAR 1.65). - Limitations: n=6. One hard day. Not a performance trial. Running. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL56 — Increased protein requirements in female athletes after variable-intensity exercise

Wooding DJ, Packer JE, Kato H, et al.; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000001366. PMID: 28692631. - Design / duration: IAAO; Acute trials. - Population / baseline: 6 active women, luteal phase, shuttle running. - Verified extraction: EAR 1.41 and RDA estimate 1.71 g/kg/day. - Limitations: Not cycling. n=6. Abstract-only. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL57 — Protein nutrition for endurance athletes: a metabolic focus on promoting recovery and training adaptation

Witard OC, Hearris M, Morgan PT; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-025-02203-8. PMID: 40117058. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Review of requirement studies. - Population / baseline: Endurance athletes. - Verified extraction: Advocates ~1.8 g/kg/day, possibly >2.0 during CHO-restricted training and on some rest days. No compelling benefit of co-ingesting protein during endurance exercise if CHO targets are met. - Limitations: Review. Per-meal endurance dose-response still thin, as the authors state. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL58 — UCI Sports Nutrition Project: nutritional periodization

Morton JP, Hearris M, Fell MJ, Owens DJ, Halson S, Trommelen J; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2025-0073. PMID: 41130458. - Design / duration: Consensus-style review; Microcycle to macrocycle. - Population / baseline: Elite cycling context. - Verified extraction: Fuel for the work required. Daily protein at least 1.6-2.1 g/kg/day. Definitive evidence that train-low induces superior performance is limited. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Practice chapter, not a new trial. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL59 — Low-carbohydrate training increases protein requirements of endurance athletes

Gillen JB, West DWD, Williamson EP, Fung HJW, Moore DR; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002036. PMID: 31083047. - Design / duration: Crossover IAAO; Two availability conditions around interval running and a next-morning 10 km. - Population / baseline: 8 endurance-trained males. - Verified extraction: Phenylalanine oxidation higher in low-CHO availability. Authors conclude protein requirements increase. New g/kg breakpoint not stated in the retrieved abstract. - Limitations: Abstract truncated at the conclusion. Running, n=8. Magnitude not verified. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL60 — ACSM position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement

Sawka MN, Burke LM, Eichner ER, Maughan RJ, Montain SJ, Stachenfeld NS; 2007. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31802ca597. PMID: 17277604. - Design / duration: Position stand; Before, during, after exercise. - Population / baseline: Physically active individuals. - Verified extraction: Start euhydrated. Prevent excessive dehydration defined as >2% body-weight loss from water deficit. Customise fluid replacement. Estimate sweat rate from body mass. - Limitations: 2007. Later hyponatremia consensus emphasises not overdrinking. Abstract-only. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL61 — NATA position statement: fluid replacement for the physically active

McDermott BP, Anderson SA, Armstrong LE, et al.; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.4085/1062-6050-52.9.02. PMID: 28985128. - Design / duration: Position statement; Exercise. - Population / baseline: Physically active people. - Verified extraction: Both hypohydration and hyperhydration compromise performance and health. Quantify sweat rates. Educate against overdrinking and hyponatremia. - Limitations: Position statement, not a cycling sodium dose trial. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL62 — Exercise-associated hyponatremia: 2017 update

Hew-Butler T, Loi V, Pani A, Rosner MH; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2017.00021. PMID: 28316971. - Design / duration: Review; Review. - Population / baseline: Endurance and other athletic events. - Verified extraction: Overdrinking beyond thirst and non-osmotic AVP release are the most common causes. Sodium depletion may matter in a subset. - Limitations: Short abstract. Not a treatment guide. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL63 — Sweating rate and sweat sodium concentration in athletes: methodology and intra/interindividual variability

Baker LB; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0691-5. PMID: 28332116. - Design / duration: Methods review; Review. - Population / baseline: Athletes. - Verified extraction: Sweat rate and sweat sodium vary widely. Testing can guide replacement only if collection and interpretation are sound. Intensity, heat, acclimation, size, sex, diet, and hydration status all matter. - Limitations: Does not prescribe a mmol dose. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL64 — Normative data for sweating rate, sweat sodium concentration, and sweat sodium loss in athletes

Barnes KA, Anderson ML, Stofan JR, et al.; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2019.1633159. PMID: 31230518. - Design / duration: Observational compilation 2000-2017; Field and lab sweat tests. - Population / baseline: 1303 athletes across sports. - Verified extraction: Endurance sports: whole-body sweat rate 1.28 ± 0.57 L/h; sodium loss 51.7 ± 27.8 mmol/h. Large SD. Not a prescription. - Limitations: Mixed endurance sports, not cycling-only. Abstract-only. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL65 — Oral health and elite sport performance

Needleman I, Ashley P, Fine P, et al.; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2014-093804. PMID: 25263651. - Design / duration: Consensus statement; n/a. - Population / baseline: Elite athletes. - Verified extraction: Poor oral health is consistently reported. Challenges include nutrition, oral dehydration, and low prioritisation. Oral disease is preventable in principle. Research base limited. - Limitations: Does not isolate sports-drink exposure. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL66 — Oral health of elite athletes and association with performance: systematic review

Ashley P, Di Iorio A, Cole E, Tanday A, Needleman I; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2014-093617. PMID: 25388551. - Design / duration: Systematic review; Cross-sectional epidemiology. - Population / baseline: Elite/professional athletes, 34 studies. - Verified extraction: Caries 15-75%, erosion 36-85%, periodontal disease 15%. In four studies, 5-18% reported a performance impact. Quality generally low. - Limitations: Does not prove sports drinks caused the prevalence. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL67 — Oral health and impact on performance of athletes at the London 2012 Olympic Games

Needleman I, Ashley P, Petrie A, et al.; 2013. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2013-092891. PMID: 24068332. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional clinic sample; Games period. - Population / baseline: 278 athletes attending the polyclinic dental clinic. - Verified extraction: Caries 55%, erosion 45%, gingivitis 76%. 18% reported an impact on training or performance. Nearly half had no dental check in the previous year. - Limitations: Clinic attendees, not a random athlete sample. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL68 — Sports diet and oral health in athletes: a comprehensive review

Schulze A, Busse M; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/medicina60020319. PMID: 38399605. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Review. - Population / baseline: Athletes. - Verified extraction: Cites high prevalence ranges and attributes part of the burden to frequent sugar/carbohydrate exposure. Recommends hygiene alongside sports nutrition, not instead of fueling. - Limitations: Review. Prevalence ranges are secondary. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL69 — 2023 IOC consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (REDs)

Mountjoy M, Ackerman KE, Bailey DM, et al.; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2023-106994. PMID: 37752011. - Design / duration: Consensus statement; n/a. - Population / baseline: Female and male athletes. - Verified extraction: REDs is a syndrome from low energy availability. Distinguishes adaptable vs problematic exposure. Introduces CAT2 for detection and clinical diagnosis by accumulated severity, not one laboratory value. Emerging role of low carbohydrate availability noted. - Limitations: Full text not retrieved. The often-cited 30 kcal/kg FFM/day sentence was not quoted from this paper. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL70 — Review of the IOC REDs Clinical Assessment Tool version 2

Stellingwerff T, Mountjoy M, McCluskey WT, Ackerman KE, Verhagen E, Heikura IA; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2023-106914. PMID: 37752002. - Design / duration: Tool development and validation paper; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athletes assessed for REDs. - Verified extraction: No singular validated diagnostic test. Three steps: screening, severity/risk stratification, physician-led diagnosis. Traffic-light participation guide is clinical, not a calorie cutoff. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Not a validation that any questionnaire is sufficient alone. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL71 — Low energy availability: history, definition and evidence of its endocrine, metabolic and physiological effects

Areta JL, Taylor HL, Koehler K; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-020-04516-0. PMID: 33095376. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Most causal interventions ≤5 days. - Population / baseline: Prospective LEA studies mostly short and originally female. - Verified extraction: EA is dietary energy remaining after exercise, not energy balance. Causal evidence is short. Male experimental evidence limited. Field extrapolation requires caution. - Limitations: Review. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL72 — Menstrual disruption with exercise is not linked to an energy availability threshold

Lieberman JL, De Souza MJ, Wagstaff DA, Williams NI; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000001451. PMID: 29023359. - Design / duration: Randomised diet-and-exercise intervention over three menstrual cycles; secondary EA analysis; Three menstrual cycles. - Population / baseline: 35 sedentary ovulatory women, 18-24 years. - Verified extraction: Odds of menstrual disturbance fell 9% per unit rise in EA (OR 0.91, 95% CI 0.84-0.98). No threshold. Tertiles ~23-50 kcal/kg FFM/day. - Limitations: Sedentary women, not trained cyclists. Still the direct evidence against a universal cutoff. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL73 — Low energy availability in athletes 2020: narrative review

Logue DM, Madigan SM, Melin A, et al.; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/nu12030835. PMID: 32245088. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Review. - Population / baseline: Athletes. - Verified extraction: EA assessment is methodologically difficult. LEAF-Q can screen female endurance athletes at risk. Screening is not diagnosis. Knowledge among coaches and athletes is low. - Limitations: Review. Prevalence depends on tool. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL74 — Energy availability in athletics: health, performance, and physique

Melin AK, Heikura IA, Tenforde A, Mountjoy M; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0201. PMID: 30632422. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Review. - Population / baseline: Track and field athletes. - Verified extraction: Reported LEA prevalence 18-58%, highest in endurance and jumps. Functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea reported in 60% of elite female middle- and long-distance athletes in the cited literature and 23% of elite sprinters. Men: low testosterone, libido, impaired training capacity. Athletes can be weight-stable and still impaired. - Limitations: Track and field, not cycling incidence. Secondary prevalence figures. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL75 — Overtraining syndrome and RED-S: shared pathways, symptoms and complexities

Stellingwerff T, Heikura IA, Meeusen R, et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01491-0. PMID: 34181189. - Design / duration: Narrative review of overload studies that also measured intake; Review. - Population / baseline: 21 overload/OTS-type studies with intake data. - Verified extraction: 18 of 21 studies showed an EA decrease/difference or a CHO availability decrease during overload. Symptom overlap with RED-S is large. Under-fueling should be excluded before an overtraining diagnosis. - Limitations: Not a prospective cyclist trial. Indication of shortfall is not a diagnosis. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL76 — Exogenous glucose oxidation during exercise is positively related to body size

Ijaz A, Collins AJ, Moreno-Cabañas A, et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2024-0097. PMID: 39332815. - Design / duration: Crossover/group comparison with 13C glucose; 120 min at 95% lactate threshold; 90 g/h glucose. - Population / baseline: 15 cyclists grouped by body mass; lactate threshold matched at 2.3 W/kg. - Verified extraction: Exogenous glucose oxidation 33 ± 8 g/h in smaller vs 45 ± 13 g/h in larger athletes at the same relative intensity (difference 13 g/h, 95% CI 2-24). Body surface area vs peak exogenous oxidation r=0.85. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Group n incompletely specified. Glucose only, not a mixed drink. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL77 — Similar performance after carbohydrate plus whey protein and carbohydrate only in the early phase after non-exhaustive cycling

Sollie O, Clauss M, Jeppesen PB, et al.; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.14364. PMID: 37010270. - Design / duration: Double-blind randomised crossover; 90 min morning session including a 60 min time trial; 5 h recovery; 1.2 g/kg/h CHO vs 0.8 CHO + 0.4 whey. - Population / baseline: 13 highly trained competitive male cyclists. - Verified extraction: Abstract confirms design only: 13 highly trained male cyclists, 90 min morning session including a 60 min time trial, 5 h recovery, 1.2 g/kg/h carbohydrate vs 0.8 g/kg/h carbohydrate plus 0.4 g/kg/h whey. Results paragraph was not fully extracted. The title states similar performance and is not used as an outcome. - Limitations: Results not fully extracted. Title is not quantitative proof. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

FUEL78 — Nutritional strategies to improve post-exercise recovery and subsequent exercise performance

Naderi A, Rothschild JA, Santos HO, et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-025-02213-6. PMID: 40221559. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Review. - Population / baseline: Athletes with short recovery. - Verified extraction: Carbohydrate amount, type, and early timing dominate glycogen replenishment. Protein helps when carbohydrate is suboptimal. - Limitations: Review. Supplement adjuncts not used in this brief. - Relevant chapters: Fueling and energy availability - Retrieval routes: source 1

Sleep, heat and iron

REC01 — Sleep and the athlete: narrative review and 2021 expert consensus recommendations

Walsh NP et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2020-102025. PMID: 33144349. - Design / duration: Narrative review and expert consensus; n/a. - Population / baseline: Elite athletes; consensus panel. - Verified extraction: Habitual short sleep (<7 h) and fragmentation are common. Total sleep loss reduces performance; partial restriction over 1-3 nights remains unclear. Rejects a one-size 7-9 h rule; calls for research on naps and sleep extension. - Limitations: Few female experimental data; not a meta-analysis of cycling. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC02 — Effects of Acute Sleep Loss on Physical Performance: A Systematic and Meta-Analytical Review

Craven J et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01706-y. PMID: 35708888. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; Acute (≤6 h vs >6 h in 24 h). - Population / baseline: 69 publications; 89% male outcome measures. - Verified extraction: Mean performance change -7.56% (95% CI -11.9 to -3.13), including endurance. Consistent harm with deprivation and late restriction, not all early-night restriction. Afternoon tasks more affected. ~0.4% worse per hour awake in deprivation/late-restriction protocols. - Limitations: I2=98.1%. Not cyclist-specific. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC03 — Effects of sleep deprivation on sports performance and perceived exertion in athletes and non-athletes

Kong Y et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2025.1544286. PMID: 40236824. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; Acute deprivation/restriction; search to Sep 2024. - Population / baseline: 45 studies; athletes and non-athletes. - Verified extraction: Athlete aerobic endurance SMD -0.66 (95% CI -1.28 to -0.04); RPE SMD 0.39 (0.11 to 0.66). Total deprivation linked to aerobic endurance. PM tests more affected for several outcomes. - Limitations: Wide CIs; mixed sports. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC04 — Effects of Acute Sleep Deprivation on Sporting Performance in Athletes

Gong M et al.; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.2147/NSS.S467531. PMID: 39006249. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; Acute sleep deprivation. - Population / baseline: 27 studies, athletes. - Verified extraction: Overall athletic performance impaired (effect size -0.56 in the retrieved abstract fragment). Aerobic endurance among impaired abilities. Larger impact from end-of-night partial loss than beginning-of-night loss. Afternoon worse than morning. - Limitations: Abstract numeric formatting was partly corrupted by markup; directional findings used, not every SMD. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC05 — Extended Sleep Maintains Endurance Performance Better than Normal or Restricted Sleep

Roberts SSH et al.; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002071. PMID: 31246714. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover; 3 nights restriction, normal, or extension; TT on 4 days. - Population / baseline: 9 endurance cyclists/triathletes. - Verified extraction: Restriction ~4.5-4.9 h slowed day-3 TT (60.4±3.7 vs 58.8±2.5 min). Extension ~7.9-8.6 h vs normal ~6.5-7.1 h made day-4 TT faster (56.8±3.1 vs 58.7±3.4 min). Authors conclude sleep >8 h to optimise performance. - Limitations: n=9. Acute repeated TT, not training adaptation. Abstract-only. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC06 — Effects of total sleep deprivation on endurance cycling performance and heart rate indices

Roberts SSH et al.; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2019.1661561. PMID: 31526108. - Design / duration: Crossover; 1 night total deprivation vs normal sleep. - Population / baseline: 13 endurance athletes. - Verified extraction: TT 10% slower after deprivation (64±7 vs 59±4 min) and 11% slower than prior day. RPE:HR ratio, mood, and vigilance worsened. - Limitations: Total deprivation, not partial. Abstract-only. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC07 — The effects of sleep extension on the athletic performance of collegiate basketball players

Mah CD et al.; 2011. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.5665/SLEEP.1132. PMID: 21731144. - Design / duration: Pre-post sleep extension, no non-extension control; 5-7 weeks, goal ≥10 h in bed. - Population / baseline: 11 male collegiate basketball players. - Verified extraction: Objective sleep +110.9±79.7 min. Sprint 16.2±0.61 to 15.5±0.54 s. Free-throw and 3-point accuracy about +9 percentage points. - Limitations: Not cycling or endurance. No control group. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC08 — Sleep extension in athletes: what we know so far - A systematic review

Silva AC et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2020.11.028. PMID: 33352457. - Design / duration: Systematic review; Extension 26-106 min. - Population / baseline: Athlete sleep-extension trials; 7 studies after screening. - Verified extraction: Some large effects among 15 sport measures; evidence very low to moderate; bias often high. Conclusions tentative. - Limitations: Few trials. Not endurance-specific. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC09 — Sleep extension improves serving accuracy: A study with college varsity tennis players

Schwartz J, Simon RD; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.08.035. PMID: 26325012. - Design / duration: Sleep-extension intervention; Sleep extension period. - Population / baseline: College varsity tennis players. - Verified extraction: Serving accuracy improved. Used only to mark non-cycling skill evidence. - Limitations: Not cycling. Abstract details beyond title-level outcome not relied on for magnitude. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC10 — The impact of training schedules on the sleep and fatigue of elite athletes

Sargent C et al.; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3109/07420528.2014.957306. PMID: 25222347. - Design / duration: Observational actigraphy; 2 weeks normal training. - Population / baseline: 70 nationally ranked athletes, 7 sports. - Verified extraction: Mean sleep 6 h 30 min. Less time in bed and less sleep on nights before training days than rest days. Shorter sleep associated with higher pre-training fatigue. - Limitations: Not an experimental need study. Mixed sports. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC11 — How Much Sleep Does an Elite Athlete Need?

Sargent C et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0896. PMID: 34021090. - Design / duration: Observational actigraphy plus self-assessed need; ~12 nights. - Population / baseline: 175 elite athletes (30 women), 12 sports. - Verified extraction: Self-assessed need 8.3±0.9 h; obtained 6.7±0.8 h; deficit 96±60.6 min. 3% met own need. Individual-sport athletes slept less; stated need similar. - Limitations: Self-assessed need is not an experimental optimum and is not 9 h. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC12 — Sleep/wake behaviours of elite athletes from individual and team sports

Lastella M et al.; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2014.932016. PMID: 24993935. - Design / duration: Observational; ≥7 nights. - Population / baseline: 124 elite athletes. - Verified extraction: 6.8±1.1 h. Individual sports 6.5 h vs team 7.0 h. - Limitations: Not a performance trial. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC13 — Sleep duration and quality in elite athletes measured using wristwatch actigraphy

Leeder J et al.; 2012. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2012.660188. PMID: 22329779. - Design / duration: Observational; Individual nights. - Population / baseline: 47 Olympic athletes vs 20 controls. - Verified extraction: Sleep efficiency 80.6±6.4% vs 88.7±3.6%. Fragmentation higher in athletes. Time asleep not significantly different (p=0.27). - Limitations: Mixed sports. Quality, not a need experiment. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC14 — Is daytime napping an effective strategy to improve sport-related cognitive and physical performance and reduce fatigue?

Mesas AE et al.; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2022-106355. PMID: 36690376. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs; Daytime naps vs no nap. - Population / baseline: 22 trials, 291 men aged 18-35. - Verified extraction: After normal sleep, physical performance SMD 0.99 (0.67 to 1.31), I2=89%. Benefits higher for 30 to <60 min and >1 h from waking to test. Also favourable after partial deprivation on fewer studies. - Limitations: No women. High heterogeneity. Not cycling TT. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC15 — The Impact of Daytime Napping Following Normal Night-Time Sleep on Physical Performance

Boukhris O et al.; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01920-2. PMID: 37700141. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; Naps after 7-9 h night sleep. - Population / baseline: Physically active people and athletes; 18 articles. - Verified extraction: Improved 5 m shuttle distance and fatigue index. No effect on muscle force. Other endurance measures too few for firm conclusions. - Limitations: Intermittent tests dominate. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC16 — The effect of daytime napping on the athletic performance of team ball sports athletes

Zheng J et al.; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2026.1878224. PMID: 42558951. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; Search to 2025-12-18; first published 2026-07-22. - Population / baseline: 12 RCTs, 179 team ball-sport athletes. - Verified extraction: After presumed normal sleep, endurance SMD 0.96 (0.62 to 1.29). Naps >60 min SMD 1.38 for endurance. Early afternoon. Cognitive/technical effects imprecise. - Limitations: Team ball sports, not cycling. Endurance mostly intermittent. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC17 — The effects, mechanisms and strategies of daytime napping on athletes: a narrative review

Yu H et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-025-05724-2. PMID: 39922927. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athletes. - Verified extraction: Suggests naps 13:00-15:00, 20-40 or 60-90 min depending on night sleep, and ≥60 min before exercise to reduce inertia. - Limitations: Narrative; not a cyclist meta-analysis. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC18 — To Nap or Not to Nap? A Systematic Review Evaluating Napping Behavior in Athletes

Lastella M et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.2147/NSS.S315556. PMID: 34194254. - Design / duration: Systematic review; To Aug 2020. - Population / baseline: 37 athlete studies. - Verified extraction: Napping studied for frequency, duration, timing, and effects on physical, cognitive, and perceptual outcomes. Moderate quality overall. - Limitations: Heterogeneous. Used as review context, not a single effect size. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC19 — Benefits of Daytime Napping Opportunity on Physical and Cognitive Performances

Souabni M et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01482-1. PMID: 34043185. - Design / duration: Systematic review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Physically active participants. - Verified extraction: Nap opportunity can benefit physical and cognitive performance; effects depend on duration, prior sleep, and test. - Limitations: Not cycling-specific. Effect sizes not extracted beyond the review conclusion. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC20 — A review of short naps and sleep inertia

Hilditch CJ, Dorrian J, Banks S; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2016.12.016. PMID: 28366332. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Naps ≤30 min. - Verified extraction: Mixed slow-wave sleep and mixed inertia after short naps. A blanket ≤30 min rule is potentially misleading without prior sleep and time of day. - Limitations: Few nighttime short-nap studies. Not athlete-only. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC21 — The influence of an afternoon nap on the endurance performance of trained runners

Blanchfield AW et al.; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1477180. PMID: 29851569. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover; Nap 20±10 min ~90 min before evening run. - Population / baseline: 11 trained male runners. - Verified extraction: Group TTE unchanged (596±148 vs 589±216 s). Runners sleeping 6.4±0.7 h improved; those sleeping 7.5±0.4 h did not. - Limitations: Runners, TTE, small n. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC22 — The effect of sleep restriction, with or without high-intensity interval exercise, on myofibrillar protein synthesis

Saner NJ et al.; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/JP278828. PMID: 32078168. - Design / duration: Parallel groups; 5 nights: 8 h, 4 h, or 4 h plus 3 HIIE sessions. - Population / baseline: 24 healthy young men. - Verified extraction: MyoPS 1.24±0.21 %/day in restriction vs 1.53±0.09 normal and 1.61±0.14 restriction+HIIE. - Limitations: Not trained cyclists. Not a VO2 adaptation trial. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC23 — The effect of acute sleep deprivation on skeletal muscle protein synthesis and the hormonal environment

Lamon S et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14660. PMID: 33400856. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover; 1 night total deprivation. - Population / baseline: 13 young adults (7 male, 6 female). - Verified extraction: Muscle protein synthesis -18%. Cortisol +21%. Testosterone -24%. - Limitations: One night total deprivation. Not cyclists. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC24 — Does overreaching from endurance-based training impair sleep: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Murphy C et al.; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0303748. PMID: 38809828. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; Protocols mean 16 days. - Population / baseline: 14 studies; endurance overreaching including cycling. - Verified extraction: Objective sleep efficiency -2.0 percentage points (95% CI -3.2 to -0.8). No clear subjective sleep-quality effect. No study low risk of bias. - Limitations: Few objective studies (k=3). - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC25 — Sleep Interventions Designed to Improve Athletic Performance and Recovery: A Systematic Review

Bonnar D et al.; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0832-x. PMID: 29352373. - Design / duration: Systematic review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Competitive athletes. - Verified extraction: Sleep-intervention evidence for performance and recovery is limited and methodologically uneven. - Limitations: Not used for a pooled effect size. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC26 — Sleep and athletic performance: the effects of sleep loss on exercise performance

Fullagar HH et al.; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-014-0260-0. PMID: 25315456. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athletes. - Verified extraction: Sleep loss can impair performance, especially submaximal prolonged exercise, plus cognition and recovery processes. Historical review; effect sizes superseded by later metas. - Limitations: Pre-2022. Not a meta-analysis. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC27 — Sleep Hygiene for Optimizing Recovery in Athletes: Review and Recommendations

Vitale KC et al.; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1055/a-0905-3103. PMID: 31288293. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athletes. - Verified extraction: Sleep-hygiene recommendations for recovery. Not a dose-response trial of sleep duration and cycling adaptation. - Limitations: Narrative. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1

REC28 — The Effects of Heat Adaptation on Physiology, Perception and Exercise Performance in the Heat: A Meta-Analysis

Tyler CJ et al.; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-016-0538-5. PMID: 27106556. - Design / duration: Meta-analysis; Most often 7-14 days; longer >14 days more effective. - Population / baseline: 96 articles; human heat-adaptation studies. - Verified extraction: Moderate benefit on exercise capacity and performance in the heat. Longer regimens more effective. Lowers core temperature and supports cardiovascular stability and heat loss. - Limitations: Performance synthesis is in the heat, not cool cycling. Large methodological heterogeneity. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC29 — Influence of Exercise Heat Acclimation Protocol Characteristics on Adaptation Kinetics

McDonald P et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1002/cph4.70017. PMID: 40442924. - Design / duration: Bayesian meta-regression; Mean 8±4 exposures, 90±36 min, 39.1±4.8°C. - Population / baseline: 211 papers. - Verified extraction: Plasma volume +5.6% (90% CrI 3.8 to 7.0). Time-to-exhaustion +49% (35 to 61). Time-trial +3.1% (1.8 to 4.5). Extra exposure associated with +1.9 g haemoglobin mass (0.6 to 3.2), an across-study slope. - Limitations: Heat-performance outcomes. Hb-mass slope is not a daily prescription. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC30 — The effect of post-exercise heat exposure (passive heat acclimation) on endurance exercise performance

Solomon TPJ, Laye MJ; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1186/s13102-024-01038-6. PMID: 39762944. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; Post-exercise sauna or hot-water immersion vs same training. - Population / baseline: 10 studies, 199 adults (156 male). - Verified extraction: Hot performance ratio of means 1.04 (95% CI 0.94-1.15). Thermoneutral performance trivial. Certainty low to very low. - Limitations: Small samples, bias, imprecision. Does not erase single positive trials. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC31 — Effects of Post-Exercise Heat Exposure on Acute Recovery and Training-Induced Performance Adaptations

Ahokas EK et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1186/s40798-025-00910-0. PMID: 41032138. - Design / duration: Systematic review; Acute and chronic post-exercise heat ≥36°C. - Population / baseline: 14 studies, 194 adults. - Verified extraction: Acute recovery mixed. Chronic studies suggest possible running benefit in heat; no clear cycling performance or VO2max effect in included studies. Evidence low to moderate. - Limitations: Heterogeneity prevented meta-analysis. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC32 — Adaptations and mechanisms of human heat acclimation

Périard JD, Racinais S, Sawka MN; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.12408. PMID: 25943654. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athletes. - Verified extraction: Heat acclimation improves sweating, skin blood flow, lowers body temperature, reduces cardiovascular strain, and can improve hot and potentially temperate aerobic performance. Dose depends on intensity, duration, frequency, and number of exposures. - Limitations: Review, not a new trial. Temperate benefit described as potential. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC33 — Consensus recommendations on training and competing in the heat

Racinais S et al.; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2015-094915. PMID: 26069301. - Design / duration: Consensus; 1-2 weeks repeated exercise-heat. - Population / baseline: Athletes competing in heat. - Verified extraction: Heat acclimatisation is the main intervention to reduce strain and protect performance. Start euhydrated and minimise dehydration. - Limitations: Consensus, not a cyclist RCT. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC34 — Heat Acclimation Decay and Re-Induction: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Daanen HAM, Racinais S, Périard JD; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0808-x. PMID: 29129022. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; HA ≥5 days; decay ≥7 days in longitudinal studies. - Population / baseline: 12 studies for decay. - Verified extraction: End-exercise HR adaptation lost ~2.3%/decay day; core temperature ~2.6%/day. Re-induction faster than original induction for HR and core temperature. - Limitations: Protocols poorly standardised. Not haemoglobin mass. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC35 — Effect of post-exercise sauna bathing on the endurance performance of competitive male runners

Scoon GS et al.; 2007. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2006.06.009. PMID: 16877041. - Design / duration: Crossover; 3 weeks sauna vs 3 weeks control; 31±5 min at 89.9±2.0°C; 12.7±2.1 sessions. - Population / baseline: 6 male distance runners. - Verified extraction: TTE +32% (90% CL 21-43%), equated to ~1.9% TT. Plasma volume +7.1% (5.6-8.7). Red-cell volume +3.5% (-0.8 to 8.1). Performance correlated with plasma and blood volume, not clearly red-cell volume. - Limitations: n=6. TTE. Not 3x45. Not cyclists. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC36 — Effect of sauna-based heat acclimation on plasma volume and heart rate variability

Stanley J et al.; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-014-3060-1. PMID: 25432420. - Design / duration: Time series within athletes; 10 days, 30 min, 87°C, 11% RH, post training. - Population / baseline: 7 well-trained male cyclists. - Verified extraction: Plasma volume +17.8% (90% CL 7.4-29.2) after four exposures. HR/HRV tracking of plasma volume unclear. No performance test. - Limitations: n=7. Magnitude-based inference. Capillary plasma-volume method. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC37 — Post-exercise hot water immersion induces heat acclimation and improves endurance exercise performance in the heat

Zurawlew MJ et al.; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.12638. PMID: 26661992. - Design / duration: Controlled intervention; 6 days; 40 min run then ≤40 min 40°C (n=10) or 34°C (n=7). - Population / baseline: 17 non-heat-acclimatised men. - Verified extraction: 5 km TT +4.9% at 33°C, not at 18°C. Resting rectal temperature -0.27°C. - Limitations: Not trained cyclists. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC38 — Post-exercise Hot Water Immersion Elicits Heat Acclimation Adaptations in Endurance Trained and Recreationally Active Individuals

Zurawlew MJ, Mee JA, Walsh NP; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01824. PMID: 30618833. - Design / duration: Controlled comparison; 6 days post-exercise 40°C immersion. - Population / baseline: 8 endurance-trained (~9 h/week) and 8 recreational (~3 h/week) men. - Verified extraction: Both reduced end-exercise rectal temperature in 33°C. Trained men did not clearly reduce end-exercise heart rate. - Limitations: No temperate performance test in abstract. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC39 — Intermittent post-exercise sauna bathing improves markers of exercise capacity in hot and temperate conditions

Kirby NV et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-020-04541-z. PMID: 33211153. - Design / duration: Controlled training study; 3 weeks; 28±2 min; 101-108°C; 3±1/week. - Population / baseline: 20 middle-distance runners (13 female), VO2max 56.1±8.7. - Verified extraction: Vs control: peak rectal temperature -0.2°C, HR -11 bpm in heat test; temperate VO2max +0.27 L/min; speed at 4 mmol/L +0.6 km/h. 7 weeks only -0.1°C further rectal temperature. - Limitations: Runners. Not 45 min. Hb mass not measured. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC40 — Sex differences in adaptation to intermittent post-exercise sauna bathing

Kirby NV et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1186/s40798-021-00342-6. PMID: 34297227. - Design / duration: Pre-post, both sexes; 3 weeks; 29±1 min; 101-108°C; 3±1/week. - Population / baseline: 26 trained runners (16 female). - Verified extraction: Both sexes: heat-tolerance gains; VO2max +5%; lactate speed +0.4 km/h. Sweat-gland and blood-flow responses differed by sex. - Limitations: Runners. No non-sauna control described in this abstract. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC41 — Nine-, but Not Four-Days Heat Acclimation Improves Self-Paced Endurance Performance in Females

Kirby NV, Lucas SJE, Lucas RAI; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00539. PMID: 31156449. - Design / duration: Pre-post isothermic HA; 4 vs 9 days; 90 min cycling holding rectal temperature ~38.5°C in 40°C; permissive dehydration. - Population / baseline: 8 female endurance athletes, VO2peak 47±6. - Verified extraction: 15 min cycling TT in 35°C unchanged after 4 days; after 9 days distance +3.2%, power +8.1% vs baseline. - Limitations: Small female sample. Hot TT only. Permissive dehydration. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC42 — Heat acclimation improves exercise performance

Lorenzo S et al.; 2010. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00495.2010. PMID: 20724560. - Design / duration: Controlled training study; 10 days ~50% VO2max in 40°C. - Population / baseline: 12 trained cyclists; 8 cool-training controls. - Verified extraction: Cool TT work +6%, hot +8%. Cool VO2max 66.8±2.1 to 70.2±2.3 ml/kg/min. Plasma volume +6.5±1.5%. Controls unchanged. - Limitations: Full text not retrieved; immersion preload on VO2/LT tests unresolved. Not elite. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC43 — Effects of 10 days of separate heat and hypoxic exposure on heat acclimation and temperate exercise performance

Rendell RA et al.; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00103.2017. PMID: 28592459. - Design / duration: Crossover heat acclimation ± overnight hypoxia; 10 days isothermal exercise-heat. - Population / baseline: 8 men, VO2max 58.5±8.3. - Verified extraction: Plasma volume +5.9 (7.3)%. EPO +1.8 (2.4) mIU/ml. Haemoglobin mass unchanged. Small temperate performance gains. Overnight hypoxia added nothing. - Limitations: Short HA. Small n. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC44 — Five weeks of heat training increases haemoglobin mass in elite cyclists

Rønnestad BR et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/EP088544. PMID: 32436633. - Design / duration: Controlled training study; 1 h easy cycling, 37.8°C, 5x/week, 5 weeks. - Population / baseline: 23 elite male cyclists, VO2max 76.2±7.6. - Verified extraction: Hb mass +42 g vs +6 g control. VO2max increase not greater than control. Small-to-moderate effects on LT power, fatigued economy, 15 min power. Tests at 16-19°C. - Limitations: Not sauna. Abstract-only. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC45 — Heat Training Efficiently Increases and Maintains Hemoglobin Mass and Temperate Endurance Performance in Elite Cyclists

Rønnestad BR et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002928. PMID: 35394464. - Design / duration: Controlled training study with maintenance phase; 5x50 min/week, 5 weeks, chamber or heat suit; then 3x/week for 3 weeks. - Population / baseline: Elite cyclists. - Verified extraction: Hb mass +2.6% suit, +2.4% chamber, -0.7% control. Pooled performance index +4.9±3.2% vs +1.7±1.1%. 3 sessions/week maintained rise better than stopping (3.3% vs 0.8%). - Limitations: Maintenance is not induction. Abstract-only. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC46 — Heat suit training increases hemoglobin mass in elite cross-country skiers

Rønnestad BR et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.14156. PMID: 35305278. - Design / duration: Controlled training study; 5x50 min/week heat suit, 5 weeks. - Population / baseline: 25 elite male skiers. - Verified extraction: +30 g Hb mass vs control (95% CI 8.5 to 51.7). No group difference in performance determinants or 15 min trial. - Limitations: Hb mass gain without performance gain. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC47 — Hematological, skeletal muscle fiber, and exercise performance adaptations to heat training in elite female and male cyclists

Lundby C et al.; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00115.2023. PMID: 37262101. - Design / duration: Randomised control vs heat training; 5x50 min/week, 5 weeks, inside normal training. - Population / baseline: 20 elite women VO2max 58.2; 27 elite men 76.4. - Verified extraction: Women Hb mass +4.0±1.6% (650 to 675 g); men +3.5±2.3% (1008 to 1041 g). LT, VO2max, and 15 min power improved in thermoneutral conditions. Muscle CS, fibre type, capillaries unchanged. - Limitations: Abstract does not specify chamber temperature or suit. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC48 — Hematological Adaptations to Prolonged Heat Acclimation in Endurance-Trained Males

Oberholzer L et al.; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01379. PMID: 31749713. - Design / duration: Controlled training study; 1 h at 60% VO2peak in 40°C, 5 days/week, 5.5 weeks. - Population / baseline: 21 male cyclists, VO2peak 59.1±5.2. - Verified extraction: Plasma volume rose in heat and control. Hb mass +34±36 g vs +2±33 g; interaction p=0.061. Reticulocytes and BV hormones unchanged. - Limitations: Not a clear positive Hb-mass trial. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC49 — Time-course for onset and decay of physiological adaptations in endurance trained athletes undertaking prolonged heat acclimation training

Cubel C et al.; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/23328940.2024.2383505. PMID: 39583901. - Design / duration: Controlled training study; Six 1 h heat-suit sessions/week, 5 weeks. - Population / baseline: 20 elite male cyclists. - Verified extraction: Hb mass +30 g (+3%) at 3 weeks, +40 g (+4%) at 5 weeks; back to baseline at 2 weeks. Incremental peak power +12 W; VO2max p=0.094. Hot TTE +15 min, also decayed by 2 weeks. - Limitations: Elite men. VO2max not significant. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC50 — Haematological adaptations to high-altitude and heat acclimation training in elite male cyclists

Cubel C et al.; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/EP092968. PMID: 40929090. - Design / duration: Within-athlete comparison of camps; 21 days at 3000 m; heat was six 1 h sessions/week for 5 weeks. - Population / baseline: 12 elite male cyclists; 7 also did heat. - Verified extraction: Altitude Hb mass +3.5±2.0%, decayed by 10 days. Paired heat +5.4±3.9%, not different from altitude (n=7). No performance gain after altitude camp. - Limitations: Small paired n. Not a shared-mechanism proof. First published 2025-09-10. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC51 — Heat Suit Training Preserves the Increased Hemoglobin Mass after Altitude Camp in Elite Cyclists

Rønnestad BR et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000003542. PMID: 39160765. - Design / duration: Controlled maintenance after altitude; 3 heat-suit sessions/week for 3.5 weeks after 3 weeks at ~2100 m; duration not in abstract. - Population / baseline: 18 elite male cyclists, VO2max 76±5. - Verified extraction: Camp +4.1% Hb mass. Heat maintained (0.2%) vs control -3.3%. Heat plasma volume +11.6%. - Limitations: Maintenance, not sea-level induction. Session length not in retrieved abstract. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC52 — Long-term passive heat acclimation enhances maximal oxygen consumption via haematological and cardiac adaptation in endurance runners

Jenkins EJ et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/JP289874. PMID: 41267396. - Design / duration: Within-subject counterbalanced crossover; ≥40°C hot-water immersion, 45 min, 5x/week, 5 weeks. - Population / baseline: 10 well-trained runners (9 male), VO2max 64.5±8.1. - Verified extraction: Hb mass +33 g (95% CI 18 to 49). Blood volume +284 ml. VO2max +2.7 ml/kg/min (1.4 to 4.1). - Limitations: Not 3x/week. Not cyclists. Not sauna. Small n. First published 2025-11-20. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC53 — Mechanisms of haemoglobin mass expansion following heat stress

Jenkins EJ et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/JP288997. PMID: 40836483. - Design / duration: Mechanistic review; n/a. - Population / baseline: n/a. - Verified extraction: Argues long-term heat acclimation (≥5 weeks) can expand Hb mass ~2-4% via erythropoiesis that diverges from hypoxia pathways (renal oxygen tension, plasma-volume signals, cellular stress). Passive heat is discussed as unproven at the time of that review relative to exercise-heat. - Limitations: Review claim that every study showed concurrent VO2max gains is stronger than several original trials retrieved here. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC54 — Altitude or heat training to increase haemoglobin mass and endurance exercise performance in elite sport

Lundby C, Robach P; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1113/JP287700. PMID: 41139221. - Design / duration: Narrative review; 3-5 weeks heat training. - Population / baseline: Elite endurance sport. - Verified extraction: Heat training repeatedly raises Hb mass; associated performance gains are only small. Should not displace the rest of elite preparation. Individual choice versus altitude. - Limitations: Review, not a new trial. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC55 — High or hot-Perspectives on altitude camps and heat-acclimation training as preparation for prolonged stage races

Nybo L, Rønnestad B, Lundby C; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.14268. PMID: 36350277. - Design / duration: Perspective; Weeks. - Population / baseline: Elite cyclists preparing for stage races. - Verified extraction: Heat-acclimation training discussed as alternative or adjunct to altitude for haematological adaptation. Practical experience, not a trial. First published 2022-12-22. - Limitations: Perspective. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC56 — Hematological Adaptations to Post-Exercise Sauna Bathing With No Fluid Intake

Sitkowski D et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2021.1921684. PMID: 34727008. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover; 3x/week, 4 weeks, 30 min sauna at 89±3°C after 60 min cycling; no fluid. - Population / baseline: 13 physical-education students. - Verified extraction: No additional Hb mass, EPO, or fitness benefit versus training alone. Hb-mass changes within typical error <1.8%. - Limitations: Students. Fluid withheld. 30 not 45 min. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC57 — Limited benefit of repeated post-exercise hot water immersion on exercise performance of well-trained cyclists

Kjertakov M, Aughey R, Petersen A; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-025-06041-4. PMID: 41432746. - Design / duration: Controlled intervention; 6 days; 40 min at 50% PPO in ~14°C then 40 min hot or thermoneutral water. - Population / baseline: 16 well-trained male cyclists. - Verified extraction: No 20 km TT benefit at 27°C or 35°C. Some perceptual and HR changes at 27°C. First published 2025-12-23. - Limitations: Short passive protocol. n=8 per arm. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC58 — A comparison of medium-term heat acclimation by post-exercise hot water immersion or exercise in the heat

McIntyre RD et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00315.2021. PMID: 36094449. - Design / duration: Randomised comparison; Up to 12 days post-exercise 40°C bath vs exercise at 33°C or 19°C. - Population / baseline: Men; recreational model. - Verified extraction: 12 days immersion gave fuller thermal adaptation than exercise-heat without differences in endurance capacity or overreaching markers including sleep (P≥0.190). - Limitations: Not elite cyclists. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC59 — Iron considerations for the athlete: a narrative review

Sim M et al.; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04157-y. PMID: 31055680. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athlete cohorts. - Verified extraction: Iron deficiency about 15-35% of female athlete cohorts and 5-11% of male cohorts in summarised studies. Hepcidin highlighted as a regulator of athlete iron metabolism. - Limitations: Prevalence depends on cut-off and cohort. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC60 — Iron deficiency in sports - definition, influence on performance and therapy

Clénin G et al.; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.4414/smw.2015.14196. PMID: 26512429. - Design / duration: Consensus / practical review; Monitoring about twice yearly if followed. - Population / baseline: Athletes >15 years; separate child cut-offs. - Verified extraction: Ferritin <15 empty, 15-30 low, 30 µg/L cut-off; 50 µg/L before altitude. Intermittent oral iron if repeatedly low. Long-term daily or IV iron with normal or high ferritin does not make sense and may be harmful. - Limitations: Consensus cut-off, not a universal biological law. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC61 — The treatment of iron deficiency without anaemia (in otherwise healthy persons)

Clénin GE; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.4414/smw.2017.14434. PMID: 28634965. - Design / duration: Clinical review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Otherwise healthy people with iron deficiency without anaemia. - Verified extraction: Discusses treatment of iron deficiency without anaemia. Not a licence to treat normal ferritin. - Limitations: Abstract not used for a specific dose. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC62 — Is iron treatment beneficial in iron-deficient but non-anaemic endurance athletes?

Burden RJ et al.; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2014-093624. PMID: 25361786. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; Varied iron treatments. - Population / baseline: 17 studies; IDNA endurance athletes. - Verified extraction: Large effects on ferritin, serum iron, transferrin saturation. Moderate effect on [Hb] and VO2max (Hedges g 0.610, 95% CI 0.399 to 0.821). - Limitations: Deficient athletes only. Not a replete-athlete ergogenic. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC63 — Effects of Oral Iron Supplementation on Blood Iron Status in Athletes

Šmid AN et al.; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-024-01992-8. PMID: 38407751. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs; Oral iron; search to Nov 2022. - Population / baseline: 13 studies, n=449, healthy adult athletes. - Verified extraction: Ferritin SMD 1.27 (0.44 to 2.10), clearest if baseline ≤12 µg/L. Hb and transferrin markers not reliably changed. VO2max SMD 0.49, p=0.086. Evidence moderate to low. Effective trial doses 16-100 mg elemental iron for 6-8 weeks. - Limitations: Not a screening cut-off study. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC64 — Iron deficiency, supplementation, and sports performance in female athletes: A systematic review

Pengelly M et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2024.101009. PMID: 39536912. - Design / duration: Systematic review; Varied supplementation. - Population / baseline: 23 studies, 669 high-level female athletes, ferritin <40 µg/L. - Verified extraction: Iron deficiency associated with 3-4% worse endurance. Supplementation improved endurance in included deficient athletes. Most groups ≤20. Quality moderate. - Limitations: Inclusion cut-off <40 is a review definition. Wide improvement ranges. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC65 — The Effect of Diet and Dietary Supplements on Iron Status of Active Females

McCarthy E et al.; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-026-02464-x. PMID: 42271116. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; Search to March 2026; first published 2026-06-10. - Population / baseline: Active females of reproductive age. - Verified extraction: Ferrous sulfate: haemoglobin +0.42 g/dL (0.10 to 0.74); ferritin +12.61 ng/mL (8.29 to 16.92). - Limitations: Abstract does not establish a performance benefit. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC66 — Iron balance and iron supplementation for the female athlete: A practical approach

Pedlar CR et al.; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2017.1416178. PMID: 29280410. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Female athletes. - Verified extraction: [Hb] confounded by plasma-volume shifts; ferritin confounded by inflammation. No sport-specific universal norms. Supplementation often required in deficiency; nutrition and rest also matter. Injection is time-critical, not routine. - Limitations: Review. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC67 — Methodological Considerations for Investigating Iron Status and Regulation in Exercise and Sport Science Studies

McKay AKA et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2021-0343. PMID: 35365588. - Design / duration: Methods review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athlete iron research. - Verified extraction: Blood-draw timing, screening, and biomarker choice change iron-status interpretation. - Limitations: Methods paper; no new prevalence estimate used. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC68 — Athletic induced iron deficiency: new insights into the role of inflammation, cytokines and hormones

Peeling P et al.; 2008. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-008-0726-6. PMID: 18365240. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athletes. - Verified extraction: Lists haemolysis, haematuria, sweat, and gastrointestinal bleeding as loss routes, plus inflammation-driven hepcidin. - Limitations: Does not quantify cycling GI loss. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC69 — Iron status and the acute post-exercise hepcidin response in athletes

Peeling P et al.; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093002. PMID: 24667393. - Design / duration: Pooled athlete exercise trials; Single running sessions. - Population / baseline: 54 athletes grouped by ferritin. - Verified extraction: Post-exercise hepcidin rose in groups with ferritin ≥30 µg/L, not significantly in <30 µg/L. Baseline stores shape the hepcidin response. - Limitations: Runners. Not a supplementation trial. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC70 — Factors Influencing the Hepcidin Response to Exercise: An Individual Participant Data Meta-analysis

Fensham NC et al.; 2023. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01874-5. PMID: 37347443. - Design / duration: Individual participant data meta-analysis; 3 h post-exercise window. - Population / baseline: Exercise hepcidin studies. - Verified extraction: Exercise associated with 1.5-2.5-fold hepcidin increase. Duration explained ~44% of the change score. Females tended to have a smaller absolute response; sample imbalance limits sex conclusions. - Limitations: Not cycling-only. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC71 — Footstrike is the major cause of hemolysis during running

Telford RD et al.; 2003. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00631.2001. PMID: 12391035. - Design / duration: Randomised-order crossover; 1 h running vs cycling at 75% peak VO2. - Population / baseline: 10 male triathletes. - Verified extraction: Plasma free haemoglobin rose after both; rise fourfold greater after running. Haptoglobin fell after running only. - Limitations: Acute markers, not seasonal iron balance. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC72 — Sweat iron and zinc losses during prolonged exercise

DeRuisseau KC et al.; 2002. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.12.4.428. PMID: 12500986. - Design / duration: Controlled exercise bout; 2 h at ~50% VO2peak, 23°C. - Population / baseline: 9 male and 9 female recreational cyclists. - Verified extraction: Sweat iron loss lower in hour 2 (0.042 vs 0.060 mg/m2/h). 2 h losses about 3% and 1% of then RDA for men and women. - Limitations: Temperate, not a heat block. Regional sweat estimates. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC73 — The effects of heat and exercise on sweat iron loss

Waller MF, Haymes EM; 1996. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1097/00005768-199602000-00007. PMID: 8775154. - Design / duration: Controlled environments; 1 h rest in 40°C or exercise at 50% VO2max in 25°C or 35°C. - Population / baseline: 9 male and 9 female athletes. - Verified extraction: Estimated exercise iron loss higher than rest (~0.08 vs 0.039 mg/m2/h). Concentration not simply higher in hotter exercise. - Limitations: Arm-sweat extrapolation. Short bout. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC74 — Effect of heat acclimation on sweat minerals

Chinevere TD et al.; 2008. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181641c04. PMID: 18408609. - Design / duration: Pre-post heat acclimation; 10 days walking in 45°C. - Population / baseline: 8 men. - Verified extraction: Sweat sodium fell. Sweat iron concentration trend -75% (p=0.07). Estimated hourly iron loss not significantly reduced. - Limitations: Arm glove. Iron change not significant. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC75 — Heat acclimation does not attenuate hepcidin elevation after a single session of endurance exercise under hot condition

Sumi D et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-04974-8. PMID: 35674827. - Design / duration: Controlled training comparison; 10 days, 8 sessions of 60 min at 50% VO2max in 35°C or 18°C. - Population / baseline: 15 healthy men. - Verified extraction: Hot training lowered core temperature. Hepcidin still rose after a hot exercise test; heat acclimation did not attenuate that rise versus control. - Limitations: Men. Not cyclists specifically. Not a seasonal iron-balance study. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

REC76 — The Prevalence and Impact of Heavy Menstrual Bleeding (Menorrhagia) in Elite and Non-Elite Athletes

Bruinvels G et al.; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149881. PMID: 26901873. - Design / duration: Survey; Cross-sectional. - Population / baseline: 789 online exercisers; 1073 marathon registrants. - Verified extraction: HMB 54% online, 36% marathon, 37% elite respondents. 32% reported anaemia history; 50% had used iron; 22% sought medical advice. - Limitations: Self-report, not measured menstrual iron loss. - Relevant chapters: Sleep, heat and iron - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

Strength, warm-ups and mobility

STR01 — Heavy strength training effects on physiological determinants of endurance cyclist performance: a systematic review with meta-analysis

Llanos-Lagos C, Ramirez-Campillo R, Saez de Villarreal E; 2026. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-025-05883-2. PMID: 40632222. Date note: First published online 2025-07-09; journal issue 2026. Same review, not two studies. - Design / duration: Systematic review with meta-analysis of controlled trials; Included interventions 5-25 weeks, 1-3 sessions/week; search to February 2025. - Population / baseline: 262 endurance cyclists (60 women); mean baseline VO2max 61.25 ml/kg/min. - Verified extraction: Performance g 0.463 (0.109 to 0.817) is a coherent signed result. Efficiency: small beneficial effect, magnitude about |g| 0.353, p=0.012, low certainty. Prose pairs positive point 0.353 with negative 95% CI (-0.619 to -0.088). Figure 3 displays a negative pooled estimate; caption states negative = beneficial. That positive point plus negative interval is a source reporting inconsistency, not a valid signed pair and not a new estimate. Anaerobic power g 0.560; VO2max, pVO2max, MMSS, and anaerobic capacity not significant. GRADE low. Online 2025-07-09; journal issue 2026, 126(1):193-222. - Limitations: Low certainty from risk of bias and imprecision; some non-random allocation; no significant moderators so dose is not optimised. Efficiency text point +0.353 with CI -0.619 to -0.088 conflicts with the negative Figure 3 pool; do not treat that pair as one estimate. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

STR04 — In-season strength maintenance training increases well-trained cyclists' performance

Ronnestad BR, Hansen EA, Raastad T; 2010. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-010-1622-4. PMID: 20799042. - Design / duration: Controlled intervention; 12-week build at 2 sessions/week then 13 competition weeks at 1 session/week. - Population / baseline: Well-trained cyclists; E+S n=6 men; E n=6 (5 men, 1 woman). - Verified extraction: Maintenance preserved CSA and 1RM. From the start of the build to mid-competition, Wingate peak, power at 2 mmol/L, Wmax, and 40-min power rose; the last two improved more than endurance-only. - Limitations: Very small. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR05 — Strength training improves performance and pedaling characteristics in elite cyclists

Ronnestad BR, Hansen J, Hollan I, Ellefsen S; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.12257. PMID: 24862305. - Design / duration: Controlled intervention; 25 weeks heavy strength plus endurance. - Population / baseline: Young elite cyclists; ES n=9, E n=7. - Verified extraction: ES improved isometric squat, lower-body lean mass, Wingate peak, Wmax, power at 4 mmol/L, 40-min power, and earlier peak torque. 40-min change correlated with earlier peak torque (r=0.66). VO2max and economy unchanged. - Limitations: Small; not randomised in the retrieved abstract. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR06 — 10 weeks of heavy strength training improves performance-related measurements in elite cyclists

Ronnestad BR, Hansen J, Nygaard H; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1215499. PMID: 27486014. - Design / duration: Controlled intervention; 10 weeks. - Population / baseline: Elite cyclists; E&S n=12, E n=8. - Verified extraction: Larger gains in isometric half-squat and 30-s Wingate mean power. Tendency for power at 4 mmol/L (P=0.068). 40-min all-out 4+/-6% vs -1+/-6%, P=0.13. - Limitations: Short for elites; 40-min difference not significant. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR07 — Strength training improves cycling performance, fractional utilization of VO2max and cycling economy in female cyclists

Vikmoen O, Ellefsen S, Troen O, Hollan I, Hanestadhaugen M, Raastad T, Ronnestad BR; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.12468. PMID: 25892654. - Design / duration: Randomised controlled intervention; 11 weeks; heavy strength twice weekly. - Population / baseline: 19 well-trained female cyclists; E+S n=11, E n=8. - Verified extraction: 40-min power, fractional utilisation, economy, leg-press 1RM, and quadriceps CSA improved more with strength. IIAX-IIX fell and IIA rose. Performance change correlated with fibre shift (r=-0.63) and CSA (r=0.73). - Limitations: Small; one research group. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR08 — Heavy strength training improves running and cycling performance following prolonged submaximal work in well-trained female athletes

Vikmoen O, Ronnestad BR, Ellefsen S, Raastad T; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.14814/phy2.13149. PMID: 28292885. - Design / duration: Randomised controlled intervention; 11 weeks; 3x4-10RM, twice weekly. - Population / baseline: 19 well-trained female duathletes; cycling VO2max 54+/-3 ml/kg/min. - Verified extraction: Half-squat 1RM +45+/-22% and leg lean mass +3.1+/-4.0% more than control. 5-min cycling power after 3 h rose 7.0+/-4.5% in E+S; no change in E. Running 5-min power after 1.5 h also rose, with an explicit between-group difference. - Limitations: Independence from STR07 not established. Between-group p for the cycling 5-min test not stated in the abstract. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

STR09 — Maximal strength training improves cycling economy in competitive cyclists

Sunde A, Storen O, Bjerkaas M, Larsen MH, Hoff J, Helgerud J; 2010. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181aeb16a. PMID: 19855311. - Design / duration: Randomised controlled intervention; 8 weeks; half-squat 4x4RM, 3 times/week. - Population / baseline: 13 completers of 16 competitive road cyclists (10 men, 3 women); intervention 7 men and 1 woman. - Verified extraction: 1RM +14.2%, RFD +16.7%, economy at 70% VO2max +4.8%, work efficiency +4.7%, time to exhaustion at pre-intervention maximal aerobic power +17.2%. VO2max and body weight unchanged. - Limitations: Small completer sample; single exercise. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR10 — Effects of resistance training on endurance capacity and muscle fiber composition in young top-level cyclists

Aagaard P, Andersen JL, Bennekou M, Larsson B, Olesen JL, Crameri R, Magnusson SP, Kjaer M; 2011. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01283.x. PMID: 21362056. - Design / duration: Controlled concurrent-training comparison; 16 weeks. - Population / baseline: Young elite competitive cyclists, n=14 total; group sizes not in the retrieved abstract. - Verified extraction: MVC and RFD +12-20% with strength. 45-min capacity +8% with strength only. 5-min performance +3-4% in both arms. IIA up and IIX down with strength. VO2max unchanged. Economy improved in endurance-only until it matched the strength group. Capillarisation unchanged. - Limitations: Group sizes not in the retrieved abstract. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR11 — Influence of conventional resistance training compared to core exercises on road cycling power output

Sitko S, Lopez-Laval I, Cirer-Sastre R; 2024. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.7759/cureus.59371. PMID: 38817493. - Design / duration: Three-arm training intervention; 12 weeks; strength or core twice weekly plus matched cycling. - Population / baseline: 36 trained road cyclists, mixed licence levels, 12 per arm. - Verified extraction: Strength superior to core and cycling-only for 5-s, 60-s, 5-min, and 20-min relative power. 20-min adjusted change about 0.22 vs 0.07 and 0.06 W/kg. Core beat cycling-only only at 5 s. Body mass unchanged. Reported VO2max was estimated from 5-min power. - Limitations: Not blinded; mixed performance levels; exploratory. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR12 — Off- and on-bike resistance training in cyclists: a randomized controlled trial

Barranco-Gil D, Hernandez-Belmonte A, Rodriguez-Rielves V, et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000003556. PMID: 39231694. - Design / duration: Randomised controlled trial; 10 weeks; 2 sessions/week at 70% 1RM; cycling volume and intensity matched. - Population / baseline: Well-trained male cyclists; off-bike n=12, on-bike n=12, control n=13. - Verified extraction: No VO2max effect. Strength rose 2.6-5.8% off-bike and 4.5-7.3% on-bike versus -5.8 to -3.9% in control. Wingate +4.1% and +4.3% versus -4.9%. Quadriceps CSA +2.5% and +2.2% versus -2.3%. Epub 2024-09-03; issue 2025-02-01. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Not a time trial. Treat with STR13 as one programme, not two replications. Load was 70% 1RM, not 4-10RM. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR13 — Cyclists do not need to incorporate off-bike resistance training to increase strength, muscle-tendon structure, and pedaling performance

Pallares JG, Barranco-Gil D, Rodriguez-Rielves V, et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.5114/biolsport.2025.146790. PMID: 40657002. - Design / duration: Randomised controlled trial; same design size and protocol as STR12; 10 weeks. - Population / baseline: Well-trained cyclists; VO2max about 62-63 ml/kg/min; weekly cycling about 10.7-10.9 h. - Verified extraction: Both RT arms improved squat force; on-bike uniquely improved pedaling force. MAP rose within RT arms. Time to exhaustion and efficiency had no significant group-by-time interaction. Control lost force and quadriceps size. Off-bike pain and stiffness trends were not significant (ES 0.33 and 0.37). - Limitations: Title overstates substitution. TTE not significant. Same programme as STR12. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR14 — Comparison of short-sprint and heavy strength training on cycling performance

Kristoffersen M, Sandbakk O, Ronnestad BR, Gundersen H; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01132. PMID: 31555153. - Design / duration: Randomised comparison after a shared strength period; 4 weeks shared strength then 6 weeks heavy strength or short sprints. - Population / baseline: 28 competitive cyclists; VO2max 61.1+/-5.9 ml/kg/min. - Verified extraction: Short sprints superior for 6-s, 30-s, and 55 m sprint power. Heavy strength superior for maximal strength. No group difference in endurance-capacity changes. - Limitations: Does not test plyometrics. Gross-efficiency statistic was not cleanly recoverable from the abstract markup. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR15 — Combining explosive and high-resistance training improves performance in competitive cyclists

Paton CD, Hopkins WG; 2005. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/R-16334.1. PMID: 16287351. - Design / duration: Randomised controlled intervention; 4-5 weeks; 12 sessions replacing part of usual training. - Population / baseline: 18 road cyclists; n=9 vs 9. - Verified extraction: Versus control: 1-km power +8.7% (+/-2.5% 90% CL), 4-km +8.1% (+/-4.1%), peak power +6.8%, oxygen cost -3.0%. Sessions mixed single-leg jumps with 5x30-s high-resistance cycling sprints. - Limitations: Not plyometrics alone. Short. Magnitude-based reporting. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR16 — The effects of strength training on endurance performance and muscle characteristics

Bishop D, Jenkins DG, Mackinnon LT, McEniery M, Carey MF; 1999. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1097/00005768-199906000-00018. PMID: 10378917. - Design / duration: Randomised controlled intervention; 12 weeks; parallel squat 5 sets to failure at 2-8RM, twice weekly. - Population / baseline: 21 endurance-trained women cyclists, 18-42 years; RT n=14, control n=7. - Verified extraction: Squat 1RM +35.9% versus +3.7%. Authors concluded increased leg strength did not improve cycle endurance performance. Exact 1-h power change was not recoverable from the retrieved abstract. - Limitations: Squat-only to failure. Outcome numbers partly stripped from the abstract markup. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR17 — High resistance/low repetition vs. low resistance/high repetition training: effects on performance of trained cyclists

Jackson NP, Hickey MS, Reiser RF; 2007. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/R-18465.1. PMID: 17313261. - Design / duration: Three-arm training intervention; 10 weeks; resistance added to a shared cycling plan. - Population / baseline: 23 trained club-level cyclists. - Verified extraction: Strength rose in both lifting groups. No group difference on the lactate-profile test or economy. - Limitations: Not a time trial. Abstract markup dropped some p values. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR18 — The effect of maximal- and explosive-strength training on performance indicators in cyclists

Beattie K, Carson BP, Lyons M, Kenny IC; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2016-0015. PMID: 27618339. - Design / duration: Controlled 20-week intervention; 20 weeks maximal and explosive strength. - Population / baseline: 15 competitive road cyclists; intervention n=6, control n=9. - Verified extraction: Retrieved abstract reports changes in maximal strength, bike-specific explosive strength, absolute power at VO2max, and body composition. Economy result was not cleanly recoverable. - Limitations: Small. Do not infer the economy result. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR19 — Optimizing strength training for running and cycling endurance performance: a review

Ronnestad BR, Mujika I; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.12104. PMID: 23914932. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Not a single intervention. - Population / baseline: Endurance-trained runners and cyclists in the cited trials. - Verified extraction: Heavy strength recommended for cycling economy; either heavy or explosive strength can improve running economy. Most compelling additive cycling-performance evidence was for heavy strength. - Limitations: Narrative, superseded in part by the 2025/2026 meta-analysis. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR20 — Strength training for middle- and long-distance performance: a meta-analysis

Berryman N, Mujika I, Arvisais D, Roubeix M, Binet C, Bosquet L; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2017-0032. PMID: 28459360. - Design / duration: Meta-analysis; Strength mesocycles of varying length. - Population / baseline: Middle- and long-distance runners, cyclists, skiers, and swimmers; 28 studies. - Verified extraction: Performance SMD 0.52 (0.33 to 0.70). Energy cost 0.65, maximal force 0.99, maximal power 0.50. Maximal-force training had larger effects than other intensities. - Limitations: Not cycling-only. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR21 — The effects of resistance training on road cycling performance among highly trained cyclists: a systematic review

Yamamoto LM, Klau JF, Casa DJ, Kraemer WJ, Armstrong LE, Maresh CM; 2010. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181c86583. PMID: 20072042. - Design / duration: Systematic review of RCTs to September 2009; Five included trials. - Population / baseline: Highly trained road cyclists, more than 7 h/week or 150 km/week. - Verified extraction: Two of five trials that added resistance on top of existing endurance training found no performance gain. Three that replaced some endurance training with resistance training improved performance; two of those three used explosive-type work. - Limitations: Small early evidence base. Later add-on trials complicate the replacement rule. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR22 — Compatibility of concurrent aerobic and strength training for skeletal muscle size and function: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis

Schumann M, Feuerbacher JF, Sunkeler M, Freitag N, Ronnestad BR, Doma K, Lundberg TR; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01587-7. PMID: 34757594. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; At least 4 weeks supervised. - Population / baseline: Healthy adults; 43 studies; concurrent versus strength alone. - Verified extraction: Maximal strength SMD -0.06 (-0.20 to 0.09); hypertrophy -0.01; explosive strength -0.28 (-0.48 to -0.08). Explosive-strength attenuation clearer in the same session than when separated by at least 3 h. Cycling versus running did not moderate the outcomes. - Limitations: Outcome is strength, not cycling performance. Mostly non-cyclists. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR23 — Concurrent training: a meta-analysis examining interference of aerobic and resistance exercises

Wilson JM, Marin PJ, Rhea MR, Wilson SM, Loenneke JP, Anderson JC; 2012. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e31823a3e2d. PMID: 22002517. - Design / duration: Meta-analysis; Varied. - Population / baseline: 21 studies, 422 effect sizes; mixed. - Verified extraction: Running, but not cycling, associated with decrements in hypertrophy and strength. Endurance frequency and duration negatively related to hypertrophy, strength, and power. - Limitations: Older than Schumann 2022. Not a 6 h versus 24 h comparison. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR24 — Specific training effects of concurrent aerobic and strength exercises depend on recovery duration

Robineau J, Babault N, Piscione J, Lacome M, Bigard AX; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000798. PMID: 25546450. - Design / duration: Randomised concurrent-training trial; 7 weeks; strength then aerobic; 0, 6, or 24 h gap. - Population / baseline: 58 amateur rugby players. - Verified extraction: Maximal strength gains lower at 0 h than at 6 h, 24 h, or strength-only. Some high-velocity strength and the VO2peak gain favoured 24 h over 0 h. - Limitations: Rugby, not cyclists. Magnitude-based inference in the original reporting. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR25 — High volume of endurance training impairs adaptations to 12 weeks of strength training in well-trained endurance athletes

Ronnestad BR, Hansen EA, Raastad T; 2012. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-011-2112-z. PMID: 21833484. - Design / duration: Controlled comparison of the same strength programme; 12 weeks, twice weekly. - Population / baseline: Well-trained cyclists with no strength experience (n=11) versus non-endurance trainees (n=7). - Verified extraction: Both groups gained 1RM, thigh CSA, and jump performance; relative gains and peak RFD were greater without the high endurance volume. - Limitations: Control group is not cyclists. Shows blunted strength adaptation, not blunted cycling adaptation. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR26 — The role of intra-session exercise sequence in the interference effect: a systematic review with meta-analysis

Eddens L, van Someren K, Howatson G; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0784-1. PMID: 28917030. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; At least 5 weeks. - Population / baseline: Healthy adults; 10 studies. - Verified extraction: Resistance-then-endurance favoured lower-body dynamic strength by about 6.91% (95% CI 1.96 to 11.87). No sequence effect on hypertrophy, static strength, or VO2max. - Limitations: Not cyclists. Small sequence effect. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR27 — The physiological effects of concurrent strength and endurance training sequence: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Murlasits Z, Kneffel Z, Thalib L; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2017.1364405. PMID: 28783467. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; Chronic training. - Population / baseline: Trials comparing strength-endurance versus endurance-strength order. - Verified extraction: Lower-body 1RM higher by 3.96 kg (0.81 to 7.10) when strength preceded endurance. Aerobic capacity difference 0.39 ml/kg/min (-1.03 to 1.81). - Limitations: Not cyclists. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR28 — Maximizing adaptations in concurrent training: an umbrella review of meta-analyses

Held S, Wolf L, Rappelt L, Bloch W, Donath L, Micke F, Geisler S, Isenmann E; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-026-02401-y. PMID: 41762427. - Design / duration: Umbrella review of meta-analyses; search to 28 February 2025; Epub 28 February 2026; journal June 2026. - Population / baseline: 17 meta-analyses, 144 studies, 1492 healthy participants; recreational emphasis. - Verified extraction: Concurrent training comparable to resistance training for strength, power, and hypertrophy, and better than endurance-only for strength (SMD 0.59). Versus resistance-only, aerobic capacity SMD 0.77. Highly trained data scarce. Retrieved abstract does not establish a 6 h rule. - Limitations: Not cyclist-specific. Abstract wording on sequence is internally tense and was not over-interpreted. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR29 — The impact of exercise-induced muscle damage on various cycling performance metrics: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Devantier-Thomas B, Deakin GB, Crowther F, Schumann M, Doma K; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000004629. PMID: 38241464. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; Outcomes mainly 24-48 h after damage. - Population / baseline: Studies of cycling after muscle-damaging exercise. - Verified extraction: Submaximal VO2 unchanged; ventilation and RPE increased; sprint and incremental peak power reduced; time-trial and distance-trial performance not significantly changed. CK, DOMS, and force confirmed damage. - Limitations: No significant time-trial change is not proof of no effect. Damage protocols are often unaccustomed. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR30 — Training considerations for optimising endurance development: an alternate concurrent training perspective

Doma K, Deakin GB, Schumann M, Bentley DJ; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-019-01072-2. PMID: 30847824. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Not a single trial. - Population / baseline: Concurrent-training literature. - Verified extraction: Resistance-induced muscle damage can impair subsequent neuromuscular function and endurance performance; intensity, mode, sequence, recovery, and contraction velocity modify that effect. - Limitations: Narrative. No new pooled estimate. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR31 — The effectiveness of exercise interventions to prevent sports injuries: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials

Lauersen JB, Bertelsen DM, Andersen LB; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2013-092538. PMID: 24100287. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs; Varied. - Population / baseline: 25 trials, 26610 participants, 3464 injuries; not cycling-specific. - Verified extraction: Strength training RR 0.315 (0.207-0.480). Stretching RR 0.963 (0.846-1.095). Proprioception RR 0.550. - Limitations: Transfer to cycling overuse and crash injury is unproven. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR32 — Strength training as superior, dose-dependent and safe prevention of acute and overuse sports injuries

Lauersen JB, Andersen TE, Andersen LB; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2018-099078. PMID: 30131332. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; Varied. - Population / baseline: 6 studies, 7738 participants aged 12-40, 177 injuries; not cyclists. - Verified extraction: Cluster-adjusted RR 0.338 (0.238-0.480). A 10% increase in strength-training volume associated with more than a 4 percentage-point risk reduction. - Limitations: Not cycling. Dose finding is across heterogeneous programmes. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR33 — Do exercise-based prevention programs reduce injury in endurance runners? A systematic review and meta-analysis

Wu H, Brooke-Wavell K, Fong DTP, Paquette MR, Blagrove RC; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-024-01993-7. PMID: 38261240. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs; Varied. - Population / baseline: 9 articles, 1904 endurance runners. - Verified extraction: No overall difference in injury risk (p=0.110) or rate (p=0.329). Post hoc supervised programmes looked more favourable; the retrieved abstract truncated that p value. - Limitations: Runners, not cyclists. Post hoc. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR34 — Overuse injuries in professional road cyclists

Clarsen B, Krosshaug T, Bahr R; 2010. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1177/0363546510376816. PMID: 20847225. - Design / duration: Descriptive epidemiology; interviews; Previous 12 months. - Population / baseline: 109 of 116 professional road cyclists from 7 teams. - Verified extraction: 94 overuse injuries; 45% low back, 23% knee. 58% had low-back pain; 36% anterior knee pain. Knee caused more time loss. - Limitations: No prevention test. Professionals, not 7-12 h amateurs. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR35 — Epidemiology of injury and illness across all the competitive cycling disciplines: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Fallon T, Palmer D, Bigard X, Heron N; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2024-002364. PMID: 40692620. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies; Search August 2024. - Population / baseline: 44 studies across MTB, road, track, BMX, and para-cycling. - Verified extraction: Upper-limb injuries, lacerations, abrasions, and fractures are common. Road cycling had a substantial share of head, neck, or face injuries. Not a prevention trial. - Limitations: Surveillance, not intervention. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR36 — Comparing the effectiveness of the FIFA 11+ warm-up and conventional warm-up in enhancing cyclist performance and mitigating injury risk

Panchal R, Rizvi MR, Sharma A, et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-91005-z. PMID: 40108222. - Design / duration: Pre-post comparative study; authors later call it quasi-experimental; 8 weeks; FIFA 11+ 20 min, 4 days/week, versus a longer conventional warm-up. - Population / baseline: Male competitive cyclists aged 18-45. Methods: 79 enrolled, 69 included; abstract says 80. A priori calculation asked for 104.. - Verified extraction: Authors claim better core strength, balance, RPE, 3 km performance, and lower regional injury incidence with FIFA 11+. Injury metric is injuries per cyclist, not per exposure hour. Results narrative also refers to 3 km running. Limitations state no control group and unclear long-term injury effects. - Limitations: Not an RCT. Internal inconsistencies. Do not use as proof of cycling injury prevention. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1, source 2

STR37 — Relationship between cycling mechanics and core stability

Abt JP, Smoliga JM, Brick MJ, Jolly JT, Lephart SM, Fu FH; 2007. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/R-21846.1. PMID: 18076271. - Design / duration: Acute core-fatigue experiment; Single session. - Population / baseline: 15 competitive cyclists. - Verified extraction: Frontal-plane knee motion rose from 15.1+/-6.0 to 23.3+/-12.5 degrees after core fatigue. Pedal forces did not change. - Limitations: Not a training or injury-outcome study. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR38 — Gluteal muscle activation during common therapeutic exercises

Distefano LJ, Blackburn JT, Marshall SW, Padua DA; 2009. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.2519/jospt.2009.2796. PMID: 19574661. - Design / duration: Laboratory EMG comparison; Single session; 12 exercises. - Population / baseline: 21 healthy, physically active subjects. - Verified extraction: Quantified gluteus maximus and medius EMG. No performance or injury outcome. - Limitations: EMG is not evidence of imbalance correction or cycling benefit. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR39 — Low load exercises targeting the gluteal muscle group acutely enhance explosive power output in elite athletes

Crow JF, Buttifant D, Kearny SG, Hrysomallis C; 2012. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e318220dfab. PMID: 22233788. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover acute warm-up study; Single sessions. - Population / baseline: 22 elite Australian football players. - Verified extraction: Low-load glute protocol raised countermovement-jump peak power versus no warm-up and versus whole-body vibration. - Limitations: Not cyclists. Not a time trial. Not injury. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR40 — Effect of acute static stretch on maximal muscle performance: a systematic review

Kay AD, Blazevich AJ; 2012. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e318225cb27. PMID: 21659901. - Design / duration: Systematic review; Acute. - Population / baseline: 106 studies of acute static stretch and maximal muscular performance. - Verified extraction: Detrimental effects mainly limited to stretches of at least 60 s. Shorter than 60 s can be used pre-exercise without compromising maximal muscle performance. - Limitations: Mostly isolated force, not cycling time trials. Mixed training status. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR41 — Acute effects of muscle stretching on physical performance, range of motion, and injury incidence in healthy active individuals: a systematic review

Behm DG, Blazevich AJ, Kay AD, McHugh M; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2015-0235. PMID: 26642915. - Design / duration: Systematic review; Acute stretch and injury studies. - Population / baseline: Healthy active individuals. - Verified extraction: Immediate performance change about -3.7% after static stretch, +1.3% after dynamic stretch, -4.4% after PNF. Deficit about -4.6% at or above 60 s per muscle versus -1.1% below 60 s. No clear injury effect of static or PNF stretch. When dynamic activity followed stretching, no clear performance effect. - Limitations: Not cycling-specific. Mixed populations. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR42 — Revisiting the stretch-induced force deficit: a systematic review with multilevel meta-analysis of acute effects

Warneke K, Lohmann LH; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2024.05.002. PMID: 38735533. - Design / duration: Multilevel meta-analysis of controlled pre-post trials; Acute. - Population / baseline: 83 studies, more than 400 effect sizes, 2012 participants; not restricted to trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: Maximal strength ES -0.21 (p=0.003) versus passive control; ES -0.84 for bouts of at least 60 s. Athletic performance in general was not negatively affected. Adult jumping ES 0.15 (p=0.006). - Limitations: Isolated strength is not a cycling time trial. Training status not restricted. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR43 — Acute effects of static stretching on muscle strength and power: an attempt to clarify previous caveats

Chaabene H, Behm DG, Negra Y, Granacher U; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01468. PMID: 31849713. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Acute. - Population / baseline: Strength and power studies. - Verified extraction: Static stretch of 60 s or less per muscle trivially impairs strength and power (about 1-2%) when short or embedded in a full warm-up. Holds longer than 60 s associated with about 4.0-7.5% declines. Injury-prevention suggestion for short stretch is not a new injury meta-analysis. - Limitations: Conflicts with injury-trial reviews on stretching. Not cycling. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR44 — A systematic review into the efficacy of static stretching as part of a warm-up for the prevention of exercise-related injury

Small K, Mc Naughton L, Matthews M; 2008. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/15438620802310784. PMID: 18785063. - Design / duration: Systematic review; Post-1990 to January 2008. - Population / baseline: 7 trials meeting criteria, including 4 RCTs. - Verified extraction: The four RCTs concluded static stretching was ineffective for reducing exercise-related injury. - Limitations: Not cycling-specific. Older than Lauersen 2014. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR45 — Effects of prior warm-up regime on severe-intensity cycling performance

Burnley M, Doust JH, Jones AM; 2005. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000162617.18250.77. PMID: 15870639. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover; Acute; 7-min performance trial 10 min after moderate, heavy, or sprint exercise. - Population / baseline: 12 well-trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: Mean power: control 330+/-42 W, moderate 338+/-39 W, heavy 339+/-42 W, sprint 324+/-45 W. Moderate and heavy primes improved performance by about 2-3%. Sprint prime did not. - Limitations: Short performance trial. Small. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR46 — Effect of warm-up on cycle time trial performance

Hajoglou A, Foster C, De Koning JJ, Lucia A, Kernozek TW, Porcari JP; 2005. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000177589.02381.0a. PMID: 16177615. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover; Acute 3 km time trials after no, easy, or hard warm-up. - Population / baseline: 8 well-trained road cyclists. - Verified extraction: Abstract concludes warm-up enhanced 3 km performance irrespective of easy versus hard intensity, related to faster VO2 kinetics. Exact power differences were not recoverable from the retrieved abstract markup. - Limitations: Access limit on the wattage contrast. Small. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR47 — Less is more: standard warm-up causes fatigue and less warm-up permits greater cycling power output

Tomaras EK, MacIntosh BR; 2011. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00253.2011. PMID: 21551012. - Design / duration: Crossover comparison of warm-ups; Acute. - Population / baseline: Track-sprint warm-up context; Wingate test. - Verified extraction: Traditional warm-up of at least 50 min with repeated sprints reduced peak power (1303+/-89 W) and work versus a shorter lower-intensity warm-up (1390+/-80 W; 29.1+/-1.2 vs 27.7+/-1.2 kJ). - Limitations: Sprint track context, not a road time trial. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR48 — Passive warm-up via hot-water immersion provides similar cycling performance benefits to active warm-up during a 12-minute cycling time trial

Jaen-Carrillo D, Leo P, Krohn L, Lawley JS, Lamberts RP, Rodrigues P; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2026-0278. PMID: 42785717. - Design / duration: Randomised crossover; Acute; first published 22 September 2026. - Population / baseline: 27 tier 2-3 cyclists (20 men, 7 women); training 9+/-3 h/week. - Verified extraction: 12-min TT power did not differ: active warm-up 259+/-52 W, 42 C immersion for 45 min 255+/-53 W, combined 257+/-53 W, P=0.308. - Limitations: Abstract-only. Bath is impractical. One exact VO2 p value was stripped from the abstract. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR49 — The acute effects of a cycling warm-up with and without foam rolling on biceps femoris stiffness and tissue homogeneity

Earp JE, Joshi L, Mathisen C, Robinson D, Rehbein CO, Kraemer WJ, Penailillo L; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000005513. PMID: 42483891. - Design / duration: Crossover acute study; Acute; first published 22 July 2026. - Population / baseline: 21 healthy active subjects; not specified as cyclists. - Verified extraction: Biceps femoris stiffness fell similarly after cycling with or without foam rolling. No cycling performance test. Authors say future work must test injury incidence. - Limitations: Not a performance or injury trial. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR50 — Acute prior heavy strength exercise bouts improve the 20-km cycling time trial performance

Silva RA, Silva-Junior FL, Pinheiro FA, Souza PF, Boullosa DA, Pires FO; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000442. PMID: 24584047. - Design / duration: Crossover acute potentiation study; Acute; 4x5RM leg press 10 min before a 20 km time trial. - Population / baseline: 11 trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: Time to complete the 20 km trial fell 6.1%. Cycling economy index was greater. Pacing, lactate, and RPE did not differ in the retrieved abstract. - Limitations: Acute, small, not a training adaptation. Can also fatigue other athletes. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR51 — Post-activation potentiation versus post-activation performance enhancement in humans

Blazevich AJ, Babault N; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01359. PMID: 31736781. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Acute. - Population / baseline: Human potentiation literature. - Verified extraction: Twitch potentiation has a short half-life of about 28 s. Voluntary performance changes minutes later should not be equated with that mechanism. - Limitations: Not a cycling trial. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR52 — Strength training among professional UCI road cyclists: practices, challenges, and rationales

Vikestad V, Lyngstad IK, Dalen T; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0328195. PMID: 40638631. - Design / duration: Questionnaire and interviews; Cross-sectional practice survey. - Population / baseline: 147 professional road cyclists (88 men, 59 women); 10 interviews. - Verified extraction: Common pattern was two strength sessions per week off- and pre-season, dropping to one in the race season. More women than men reported in-season lifting. Barriers: travel, fatigue, racing. Rationales included performance, injury prevention, and bone health. - Limitations: Practice, not efficacy. Injury rationale is not a trial. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR53 — Strength training among male master cyclists-practices, challenges, and rationales

Vikestad V, Dalen T; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/jfmk9040232. PMID: 39584885. - Design / duration: Questionnaire; Cross-sectional. - Population / baseline: 555 male master cyclists aged 35 and older. - Verified extraction: Strength frequency fell from off-season to race season. Barriers were fatigue and time. Bone health was a more common rationale in the older group. - Limitations: Self-report. Not an outcome trial. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR54 — Strength training in the gym versus specific strength training on the bike in young off-road cyclists

Vicari DSS, Filipas L, Giustino V, Drid P, Bianco A; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1093/bmb/ldaf024. PMID: 41482961. - Design / duration: Two-arm training comparison; 12 weeks; two sessions/week gym or on-bike strength plus endurance. - Population / baseline: 19 young off-road cyclists; sex mix heterogeneous. - Verified extraction: Gym arm increased 30-s Wingate mean power (P=0.002). On-bike arm did not (P=0.276). No significant jump-height change in either arm. - Limitations: Small. Abstract truncated some maximal-power statistics. Not a time trial. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR55 — Cycling-specific isometric resistance training improves peak power output in elite sprint cyclists

Kordi M, Folland JP, Goodall S, et al.; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1111/sms.13742. PMID: 32516483. - Design / duration: Allocated training comparison; 6 weeks; isometric cycling-specific strength replaced usual compound lift. - Population / baseline: 24 elite track sprint cyclists; EXP n=13, CON n=11. - Verified extraction: Absolute PPO +46+/-62 W and relative PPO +0.8+/-0.7 W/kg in EXP. Authors state about 3-4% PPO improvement. - Limitations: Track sprinters, not road amateurs. One p value stripped from the abstract. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR56 — Strength training improves cycling efficiency in master endurance athletes

Louis J, Hausswirth C, Easthope C, Brisswalter J; 2012. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-011-2013-1. PMID: 21638070. - Design / duration: Pre-post training without an endurance-only control; 3 weeks; knee extensions 10x10 at 70% maximal repetition, 3 times/week. - Population / baseline: 9 masters (51.5+/-5.5 years) and 8 young endurance athletes. - Verified extraction: Masters MVC +17.8% versus +5.9% in the young. Delta efficiency rose significantly in masters and only tended to rise in the young. MVC and delta efficiency correlated in masters (r=0.79). - Limitations: No endurance-only control. Short. Not heavy 4-10RM multi-joint work. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR57 — Endurance and strength training effects on physiological and muscular parameters during prolonged cycling

Hausswirth C, Argentin S, Bieuzen F, Le Meur Y, Couturier A, Brisswalter J; 2010. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2009.04.008. PMID: 19473854. - Design / duration: Controlled training comparison; 5 weeks; strength 3 times/week. - Population / baseline: 14 triathletes. - Verified extraction: Combined training prevented the fall in freely chosen cadence over a 2-h ride. Exact physiological deltas were not recoverable. - Limitations: Abstract markup incomplete for numbers. Triathletes. Short. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR58 — Strength as a predictor of aerobic power in competitive cyclists: national team insights

Javaloyes A, Sanchez-Munoz C, Salas-Montoro JA, Lillo-Bevia JR, Moya-Ramon M, Mateo-March M; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1055/a-2702-4879. PMID: 40957605. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional association study; 2-day test protocol; first published 16 September 2025. - Population / baseline: 69 high-level and professional national-team cyclists. - Verified extraction: 1RM parallel squat associated with maximal aerobic power (r=0.73). Conclusion states strength was associated with maximal aerobic power but not time to exhaustion. Other coefficients were not cleanly recoverable. - Limitations: Not causal. Not a training effect. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR59 — Traditional versus velocity-based resistance training in competitive female cyclists: a randomized controlled trial

Montalvo-Perez A, Alejo LB, Valenzuela PL, et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.586113. PMID: 33716761. - Design / duration: Randomised comparison of two lifting styles; no endurance-only arm; 6 weeks, twice weekly, plus usual endurance. - Population / baseline: 17 competitive female cyclists; traditional n=8, velocity-based n=9. - Verified extraction: Both improved strength. Velocity-based training was better for hip-thrust strength and power. No group-by-time difference for body composition or endurance performance. - Limitations: No cycling-only control. Short. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR60 — Effects of bicycle saddle height on knee injury risk and cycling performance

Bini R, Hume PA, Croft JL; 2011. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.2165/11588740-000000000-00000. PMID: 21615188. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Not a trial. - Population / baseline: Saddle-height literature since 1960; 62 references. - Verified extraction: Methods for setting saddle height disagree. Height can affect performance and knee-injury risk markers. Not a prevention RCT. - Limitations: No single validated fit formula. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR61 — Prevention, evaluation, and rehabilitation of cycling-related injury

Kotler DH, Babu AN, Robidoux G; 2016. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/JSR.0000000000000262. PMID: 27172085. - Design / duration: Clinical commentary; Not a trial. - Population / baseline: Recreational and competitive cyclists. - Verified extraction: Recommends understanding traumatic and overuse mechanisms and early correction of strength and flexibility imbalances, technique, and bike fit. - Limitations: Not evidence that imbalance correction prevents cycling injury. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR62 — The effectiveness of neuromuscular warm-up strategies, that require no additional equipment, for preventing lower limb injuries during sports participation: a systematic review

Herman K, Barton C, Malliaras P, Morrissey D; 2012. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1186/1741-7015-10-75. PMID: 22812375. - Design / duration: Systematic review; Search to January 2012. - Population / baseline: Sports participants in neuromuscular warm-up trials. - Verified extraction: Some equipment-free neuromuscular warm-ups reduced lower-limb injury in the sports studied. - Limitations: Field and court sports, not a 5-minute cycling glute circuit. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR63 — Acute effects of dynamic stretching on muscle flexibility and performance: an analysis of the current literature

Opplert J, Babault N; 2018. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0797-9. PMID: 29063454. - Design / duration: Narrative review; Acute. - Population / baseline: Dynamic-stretching studies. - Verified extraction: Dynamic stretching generally increases range of motion and can have small positive effects on subsequent force, power, sprint, and jump when not excessive. - Limitations: Not cycling time-trial evidence. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

STR64 — Foam rolling and stretching do not provide superior acute flexibility and stiffness improvements compared to any other warm-up intervention: a systematic review with meta-analysis

Warneke K, Ploschberger G, Lohmann LH, et al.; 2024. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2024.01.006. PMID: 38244921. - Design / duration: Systematic review with meta-analysis; Acute. - Population / baseline: 38 studies comparing stretching or foam rolling with other warm-up interventions. - Verified extraction: Stretching and foam rolling did not provide superior acute flexibility and stiffness improvements versus other warm-ups that can raise muscle temperature. - Limitations: Flexibility, not cycling power. Abstract used for the direction of the finding. - Relevant chapters: Strength, warm-ups and mobility - Retrieval routes: source 1

Load and adaptation monitoring

MON01 — Normalized Power, Intensity Factor and Training Stress Score

Coggan AR; 2016. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

• Design / duration: Vendor explainer; n/a.
• Population / baseline: Not a study.
• Verified extraction: Defines IF as NP/FTP. Describes NP as a model of delayed and curvilinear physiological responses, not a trial of the exponent or window.
• Limitations: Product documentation, updated 2026-05-11. Does not print the 30 s / fourth-power steps.
• Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring
• Retrieval routes: source 1

MON02 — Estimating Training Stress Score (TSS)

Friel J; 2009. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

• Design / duration: Vendor formula page; n/a.
• Population / baseline: Not a study.
• Verified extraction: States TSS = (sec x NP x IF)/(FTP x 3600) x 100 and that 1 h at FTP is 100 TSS by definition.
• Limitations: Updated 2026-04-13. Estimation table is coaching practice.
• Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring
• Retrieval routes: source 1

MON03 — What is the Performance Management Chart?

TrainingPeaks; 2015. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

• Design / duration: Vendor product page; n/a.
• Population / baseline: Not a study.
• Verified extraction: ATL is a 7-day exponentially weighted average of TSS labelled fatigue; CTL a 42-day average labelled fitness; TSB is yesterday's CTL minus yesterday's ATL. Form band slightly negative to +25 is a rule of thumb.
• Limitations: Updated 2026-05-16. Labels are product names, not measured fitness. Exact EWMA algebra not published on the page.
• Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring
• Retrieval routes: source 1

MON04 — Analysis of power output and training stress in cyclists: the development of the BikeScore algorithm

Skiba PF; 2008. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

• Design / duration: Vendor/methods note; n/a.
• Population / baseline: Illustrative athlete files; small unpublished correlations.
• Verified extraction: Reconstructs Coggan NP as a 30 s moving average and a near-fourth-power lactate weighting. xPower steps: 25 s EWMA, raise to the 4th, mean, 4th root. Example NP 239 W vs xPower 236 W. Illustrative impulse-response fit used constants other than 42/7.
• Limitations: Not peer reviewed. 40 km correlations described as data not shown (n=5 and n=10).
• Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring
• Retrieval routes: source 1

MON05 — Glossary of terms

GoldenCheetah project; publication year unverified. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

Date note: Publication year was not verified for this software glossary; 2026 in the original extraction matches the access year, not a confirmed publication date. - Design / duration: Software documentation; n/a. - Population / baseline: Not a study. - Verified extraction: Documents 30 s moving average for TSS/NP versus 25 s EWMA for xPower; CTL/ATL default time constants 42 and 7, claimed to relate to fitness and fatigue; TSB = yesterday CTL minus yesterday ATL; session-RPE = post-session RPE x minutes (citing Foster 2001); decoupling >5% heuristic qualified by heat and dehydration. - Limitations: Implementation doc, not a validation trial. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON06 — Aerobic decoupling and heart rate drift explained

Friel J; 2008. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

• Design / duration: Coaching/vendor article; n/a.
• Population / baseline: Not a trial.
• Verified extraction: Defines decoupling as first-half versus second-half power:HR. Publishes <5%, 5-10%, >10% bands and states there is no hard research-based rule for how long coupling should last. Lists heat, dehydration, glycogen, and fatigue as causes of drift.
• Limitations: Updated 2026-06-03. Bands are coaching practice.
• Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring
• Retrieval routes: source 1

MON07 — A new approach to monitoring exercise training

Foster C et al.; 2001. Original source. Access: metadata; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/1533-4287(2001)015<0109:anatme>2.0.co;2. PMID: 11708692. - Design / duration: Methods paper (session-RPE); Not re-extracted. - Population / baseline: Not re-extracted. - Verified extraction: Cited as the source of session-RPE (RPE about 30 min post x duration in minutes) via GoldenCheetah and later reviews. Trial numbers were not retrieved. - Limitations: Metadata plus secondary description only. - Identity only: this record does not verify a study result; any quantitative wording must be traced to an actually retrieved abstract/full text. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON08 — Monitoring training loads: the past, the present, and the future

Foster C; Rodriguez-Marroyo JA; de Koning JJ; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2016-0388. PMID: 28253038. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Not a new sample. - Verified extraction: Traces external-load monitoring to internal-load methods and presents session-RPE as the practical descendant of Banister TRIMP. - Limitations: Abstract. No new effect sizes. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON09 — Comparison of heart rate and session rating of perceived exertion methods of defining exercise load in cyclists

Rodriguez-Marroyo JA; Villa JG; Garcia-Lopez J; Foster C; 2012. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e31823a4233. PMID: 21997452. - Design / duration: Observational field comparison; Two seasons; 5-, 7-, and 21-day races. - Population / baseline: 12 professional male cyclists, VO2max 78.5±1.7 mL/kg/min. - Verified extraction: sRPE load correlated with HR TRIMP (r=0.75; r=0.90 per km). Race-type ranking differed until normalized by distance. - Limitations: Abstract. Men only. Competition, not training blocks. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON10 — Monitoring training load to understand fatigue in athletes

Halson SL; 2014. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-014-0253-z. PMID: 25200666. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athletes generally. - Verified extraction: No single definitive fatigue marker. Describes Banister TRIMP from duration and resting/mean/max HR; Edwards as five arbitrary HR zones times a weight; Lucia as three individually anchored zones. - Limitations: Full text consulted. Exact Banister coefficients and Edwards zone cuts were not in the extracted passages. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON11 — Monitoring athlete training loads: consensus statement

Bourdon PC et al.; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2017-0208. PMID: 28463642. - Design / duration: Consensus statement; n/a. - Population / baseline: Expert conference. - Verified extraction: Frames load monitoring as multidisciplinary internal plus external load, aimed at adaptation and health. - Limitations: Abstract is procedural; specific cut-offs not retrieved. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON12 — Internal and external training load: 15 years on

Impellizzeri FM; Marcora SM; Coutts AJ; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0935. PMID: 30614348. - Design / duration: Commentary; n/a. - Population / baseline: n/a. - Verified extraction: Restates training load as two measurable components, internal and external, which are not the same construct. - Limitations: Abstract. Conceptual, not a cycling trial. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON16 — Methods of monitoring training load and their relationships to changes in fitness and performance in competitive road cyclists

Sanders D; Abt G; Hesselink MKC; Myers T; Akubat I; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2016-0454. PMID: 28095061. - Design / duration: Observational preseason; 10 weeks. - Population / baseline: 15 well-trained competitive road cyclists. - Verified extraction: All load methods correlated r=0.54-0.81 with changes in power at 2 and 4 mmol/L. Strongest fitness links: iTRIMP and TSS (r about 0.75-0.81). Strongest 8-min TT links: iTRIMP r=0.63 and Lucia TRIMP r=0.70. - Limitations: Abstract. Not randomized. No CTL target. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON17 — A comparison of methods for quantifying training load: relationships between modelled and actual training responses

Wallace LK; Slattery KM; Coutts AJ; 2014. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-013-2745-1. PMID: 24104194. - Design / duration: Observational model fit; 15 weeks. - Population / baseline: 7 trained runners, VO2max 51.7±4.5. - Verified extraction: 1500 m improved 5.4±2.6%. Modelled vs actual performance r about 0.60-0.70 for rTSS, sRPE, and TRIMP. Time constants were fitted. - Limitations: Runners, n=7. Abstract. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON18 — The influence of different training load quantification methods on the fitness-fatigue model

Vermeire K et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0662. PMID: 33691278. - Design / duration: Model comparison; 8 weeks training plus 3 weeks detraining; weekly 3 km TT. - Population / baseline: 9 subjects, interval cycling. - Verified extraction: Prediction error similar across Banister, Lucia, Edwards, TSS, sRPE, and kJ. Methods not interchangeable: the day of largest positive influence differed by up to 19.6 days. - Limitations: Small sample. Abstract. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON19 — Relationship between various training-load measures in elite cyclists during training, road races, and time trials

van Erp T; Foster C; de Koning JJ; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2017-0722. PMID: 30300025. - Design / duration: Retrospective field; 4 years; 11655 sessions, 5445 with RPE. - Population / baseline: 21 professional cyclists. - Verified extraction: kJ, sRPE, Lucia TRIMP, and TSS almost perfectly related in training and very large to almost perfect in races and TTs. TSS training-vs-race difference 120% versus 73%, 67%, and 68% for kJ, sRPE, and Lucia TRIMP. - Limitations: Abstract. Elite men. Correlation is not interchangeability. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON20 — The influence of exercise intensity on the association between kilojoules spent and various training loads in professional cycling

van Erp T; Hoozemans MPM; Foster C; de Koning JJ; 2019. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0877. PMID: 30958053. - Design / duration: Retrospective field; 4 years; 11716 sessions. - Population / baseline: 21 professional team cyclists. - Verified extraction: Training IF 0.59±0.03 versus race IF 0.73±0.03. kJ predicted sRPE and Lucia TRIMP without an IF interaction; the kJ-TSS association depended on IF, consistent with quadratic IF weighting. - Limitations: Abstract. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON22 — Knowledge is power: issues of measuring training and performance in cycling

Passfield L; Hopker JG; Jobson S; Friel D; Zabala M; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1215504. PMID: 27686573. - Design / duration: Review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Field power-meter users; grand-tour example. - Verified extraction: Power meters can be valid and reliable. Simple summaries miss power distribution and metabolic stress. Suggests critical power or record power profile for tracking change. - Limitations: Abstract. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON23 — Quantifying and comparing training load metrics in cycling: a methodology review

Bossi AH; Matta G; Lima P; Bara-Filho M; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2026-0028. PMID: 42315095. - Design / duration: Methodology review / single-athlete worked example; Not stated in the retrieved abstract. - Population / baseline: One competitive cyclist in the worked example. - Verified extraction: Shows how to compute TSS, Edwards TRIMP, and session-RPE and how to compare them with regression and partial correlation controlling for duration. - Limitations: Abstract only. Fit statistics from secondary search summaries were not used. Not generalizable. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON27 — Maximal lactate steady state versus the 20-minute functional threshold power test

Inglis EC; Iannetta D; Passfield L; Murias JM; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0214. PMID: 31689684. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional plus 7-month follow-up; 7 months in the subset. - Population / baseline: 18 well-trained adults (12 men, 6 women); 10 returned. - Verified extraction: MLSS was 88.5±4.8% of FTP20 and 93.1±5.1% of FTP95%. MLSS rose 12±8 W; FTP20 and FTP95% did not (P=0.75). - Limitations: Abstract. Mixed sex, not all identified as cyclists in the abstract. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON28 — Is the functional threshold power a valid metric to estimate the maximal lactate steady state in cyclists?

Lillo-Bevia JR et al.; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003403. PMID: 31714462. - Design / duration: Laboratory validity and repeatability; Acute. - Population / baseline: 11 trained men, VO2max 59.7±3.0. - Verified extraction: TT20 SEM ±3 W, smallest detectable change ±9 W. MLSS bias 26±7 W vs TT20 and 12±7 W vs 95%. In-sample 91% factor and regression reduced bias. - Limitations: Abstract. Corrections were fit on the same sample. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON29 — Reliability of the functional threshold power in competitive cyclists

Borszcz FK; Tramontin AF; Costa VP; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1055/a-1018-1965. PMID: 31952081. - Design / duration: Test-retest; Familiarization plus two tests 7 days apart. - Population / baseline: 25 trained cyclists. - Verified extraction: 20-min protocol CV 2.9%, ICC 0.97. Warm-up CV 5.5%, ICC 0.84. Pacing consistent. - Limitations: Abstract. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON31 — Time to exhaustion at estimated functional threshold power in road cyclists of different performance levels

Sitko S; Cirer-Sastre R; Lopez-Laval I; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2022.06.007. PMID: 35835698. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional; Acute. - Population / baseline: Road cyclists grouped by VO2max; n not in retrieved abstract. - Verified extraction: Median TTE at Allen & Coggan FTP: 35 min recreational, 42 trained, 47 well-trained, 51 professional. - Limitations: Abstract missing sample size. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON32 — Functional threshold power as an alternative to lactate thresholds in road cycling

Sitko S; Cirer-Sastre R; Corbi F; Lopez-Laval I; 2022. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004070. PMID: 34127613. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional; Acute. - Population / baseline: 46 road cyclists, VO2max 61.1±9.1. - Verified extraction: Large correlations with some lactate landmarks (r=0.68-0.93) and significant differences from others. Not a free substitute. - Limitations: Abstract. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON33 — What is known about the FTP20 test related to cycling? A scoping review

Mackey J; Horner K; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2021.1955515. PMID: 34304689. - Design / duration: Scoping review; n/a. - Population / baseline: 15 studies, mostly trained men. - Verified extraction: FTP20 reported reliable. Large limits of agreement argue against interchange with other markers. Physiological justification still thin. - Limitations: Abstract. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON34 — Relationship between the critical power test and a 20-min functional threshold power test in cycling

Karsten B et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.613151. PMID: 33551839. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional agreement; Acute. - Population / baseline: 17 trained cyclists and triathletes, VO2peak 51±10, MAP 350±56 W. - Verified extraction: CP vs 95% of 20 min: r=0.969, bias 7±13 W, LoA -19 to 33 W. CP likely higher. - Limitations: Full text consulted. Single-visit CP protocol. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON35 — Validity and reliability of critical power field testing

Karsten B; Jobson SA; Hopker J; Stevens L; Beedie C; 2015. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-014-3001-z. PMID: 25260244. - Design / duration: Field validity and reliability; Acute repeated efforts. - Population / baseline: Cyclists; n not in retrieved abstract portion. - Verified extraction: Field CP CV 2.4%, 6.5%, and 3.5% across three protocols. SEE 4.5-5.8%. Limits of agreement wide. - Limitations: Abstract. Sample size not captured. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON36 — Predicting critical power in elite cyclists: questioning the validity of the 3-minute all-out test

Bartram JC; Thewlis D; Martin DT; Norton KI; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2016-0376. PMID: 27834562. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional validity; 3 weeks. - Population / baseline: 6 elite Australian track endurance cyclists. - Verified extraction: 3-min end-test power 402±33 W versus traditional CP 351±27 W, significantly higher. Not suitable in that group. - Limitations: Abstract. n=6. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON37 — The 3-min all-out test in cycling: a systematic review and meta-analysis on its reliability and validity

Quittmann OJ; Piehl MA; 2026. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-026-06356-w. PMID: 42479066. - Design / duration: Systematic review and meta-analysis; Search 20 June 2025. - Population / baseline: 20 studies, N=284, mostly small and male, 2006-2025. - Verified extraction: EP ICC 0.89-0.99 and WEP ICC 0.76-0.98 if retested within 3 weeks with familiarization. EP overestimated CP (gz=0.408, PI 0.024 to 0.792). WEP underestimated W' (gz=-0.389, PI -0.954 to 0.176). Pooled EP vs CP: r=0.993, SEE 21 W, bias +11.7 W, LoA -37 to +61 W. WEP vs W' r=0.499, SEE 5.4 kJ. - Limitations: Full text. Heterogeneous protocols. Prediction intervals wide. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON38 — Comparison of modelled maximal lactate steady state with critical power in elite cyclists

Habets MA; de Jong J; de Groot S; Hesselink MKC; Sanders D; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1055/a-2917-0233. PMID: 42586158. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional; Acute field MMP. - Population / baseline: 12 highly trained professional men. - Verified extraction: Modelled MLSS 357±30.6 W vs CP from 3- and 20-min MMP 364±21.5 W, r=0.881. Substantial individual variation. - Limitations: Abstract. CP was a two-duration field estimate, not a full laboratory series. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON39 — Monitoring the athlete training response: subjective self-reported measures trump commonly used objective measures

Saw AE; Main LC; Gastin PB; 2016. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2015-094758. PMID: 26423706. - Design / duration: Systematic review; n/a. - Population / baseline: 54 studies of athletes in training. - Verified extraction: Subjective measures were more sensitive and consistent than objective measures in 22 of 54 studies. Objective markers were often unresponsive to acute load changes. - Limitations: Full text consulted. Not cycling-specific. Many small studies. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON40 — Monitoring training status with HR measures: do all roads lead to Rome?

Buchheit M; 2014. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2014.00073. PMID: 24578692. - Design / duration: Narrative review with error table; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athletes. - Verified extraction: Resting HR typical error ~10% versus smallest worthwhile change ~2% (SNR ~0.7). ln rMSSD typical error ~12% versus SWC ~3%. Exercise HR typical error ~3%, SNR ~1.6. - Limitations: Full text table consulted. Figures are illustrative typical errors, not a new cyclist sample. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON41 — Training adaptation and heart rate variability in elite endurance athletes

Plews DJ; Laursen PB; Stanley J; Kilding AE; Buchheit M; 2013. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-013-0071-8. PMID: 23852425. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Elite endurance athletes. - Verified extraction: HRV up/down is not a simple adaptation signal in elites. Saturation occurs. Recommends individual averages and an individual fingerprint. - Limitations: Abstract. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON42 — HRV-guided training for enhancing cardiac-vagal modulation, aerobic fitness, and endurance performance

Manresa-Rocamora A et al.; 2021. Original source. Access: full-text; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3390/ijerph181910299. PMID: 34639599. - Design / duration: Systematic review with meta-analysis; Mostly short interventions. - Population / baseline: Endurance trainees; search to October 2020. - Verified extraction: Vagal HRV SMD 0.50 (0.09 to 0.91). Resting HR SMD 0.04. Maximal aerobic capacity SMD 0.20 (-0.07 to 0.47). VT2 SMD 0.26 (-0.05 to 0.57). Performance SMD 0.20 (-0.09 to 0.48). - Limitations: Full text consulted for pooled SMDs. Mixed sports. Small non-significant performance effects. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON43 — Monitoring and adapting endurance training on the basis of heart rate variability: systematic review with meta-analysis

Duking P; Zinner C; Trabelsi K; Reed JL; Holmberg HC; 2021. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2021.04.012. PMID: 34489178. - Design / duration: Systematic review with meta-analysis; Search March 2020. - Population / baseline: 8 studies, 198 participants, 9 interventions. - Verified extraction: Submaximal parameters g=0.296 (0.031 to 0.562). Performance g=0.079 n.s. VO2peak g=0.171 n.s. Fewer non-responders reported. - Limitations: Abstract. Mixed sports. HRV arms often did fewer hard sessions. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON46 — Individual training prescribed by heart rate variability, heart rate and well-being scores in experienced cyclists

Alfonso C; Clarke DC; Capdevila L; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-13540-z. PMID: 41028151. - Design / duration: Three-arm readiness prescription, no fixed-plan control; 40 days. - Population / baseline: 28 experienced male cyclists. - Verified extraction: All groups improved 1-, 5-, 20-min power and FTP. Combined vmHRV+well-being+RHR improved most (5-min 310.5±60 to 337.9±71 W; 20-min 260.9±55 to 284.5±64 W). Individual correlations heterogeneous. Stress was the most consistent subjective item. - Limitations: Abstract/front matter. No predefined-plan control. Men only. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON47 — Heart rate variability-guided endurance training: a SWOT evaluation

Schaffarczyk M; Sperlich B; 2026. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2026.1858271. PMID: 42724227. - Design / duration: Perspective; n/a. - Population / baseline: n/a. - Verified extraction: Argues the bottleneck is transparent decision rules, not data availability. Does not add a new pooled effect size. - Limitations: Abstract. Not a meta-analysis. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON48 — Durability of the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition can be predicted using markers of physiological decoupling

Rothschild JA et al.; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s00421-025-05815-0. PMID: 40402269. - Design / duration: Pooled analysis of four laboratory studies; About 2.5 h moderate cycling. - Population / baseline: 51 trained cyclists; 12 tested hourly to task failure. - Verified extraction: HR and respiratory decoupling tracked durability of power at VT1. A model predicted concurrent VT1 power with mean absolute error about 7.2 W and R2 0.95 in that dataset. - Limitations: Abstract. Not a validation of a 5% outdoor pass/fail. Model fit is not independent confirmation. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON49 — Predict carbohydrate and energy expenditure during endurance exercise using measures of training load

Rothschild JA; Hofmeyr S; McLaren SJ; Maunder E; 2025. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1007/s40279-024-02131-z. PMID: 39487383. - Design / duration: Laboratory prediction study; Four laboratory sessions. - Population / baseline: 15 cyclists (5 women), VO2max 51.9±7.2, plus a validation sample. - Verified extraction: Within-subject r=0.76-0.96 between load metrics and carbohydrate use or energy expenditure. Error grew before individual calibration. - Limitations: Abstract. Cited only to bound what load tracks, not as fueling guidance. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON50 — Relation between individualized training impulses and performance in distance runners

Manzi V; Iellamo F; Impellizzeri F; D'Ottavio S; Castagna C; 2009. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e3181a6a959. PMID: 19812506. - Design / duration: Observational training; 8 weeks. - Population / baseline: 8 recreational long-distance runners. - Verified extraction: Individual lactate-weighted TRIMP tracked submaximal speed and 5/10 km performance better than group-average TRIMP. Speed at 2 mmol rose 21.3±5.2%. - Limitations: Runners. Abstract truncated on some outcomes. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON51 — Tour de France versus Vuelta a Espana: which is harder?

Lucia A; Hoyos J; Santalla A; Earnest C; Chicharro JL; 2003. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000064999.82036.b4. PMID: 12750600. - Design / duration: Observational race comparison; Stage races. - Population / baseline: 7 professional men, VO2max 74.6±2.2. - Verified extraction: Three HR phases bounded by VT and respiratory compensation point, duration times a phase weight, summed. Total loads did not differ despite longer Tour stages. - Limitations: Abstract does not state the integer weights. n=7. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON52 — Cycling power outputs predict functional threshold power and maximum oxygen uptake

Denham J; Scott-Hamilton J; Hagstrom AD; Gray AJ; 2020. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002253. PMID: 28930880. - Design / duration: Cross-sectional association; Acute. - Population / baseline: Heterogeneous cohort. - Verified extraction: Power outputs associated with FTP and VO2max. Used only to reject treating FTP as a VO2max measurement. No conversion equation reproduced. - Limitations: Abstract. Association is not measurement. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON53 — Quantification of training and competition loads in endurance sports: methods and applications

Mujika I; 2017. Original source. Access: abstract; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2016-0403. PMID: 27918666. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Endurance athletes. - Verified extraction: External workload does not measure biological stress. Power, HR, lactate, and perception are complementary. - Limitations: Abstract. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON54 — Cardiovascular drift during prolonged exercise: new perspectives

Coyle EF; Gonzalez-Alonso J; 2001. Original source. Access: metadata; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1097/00003677-200104000-00009. PMID: 11337829. - Design / duration: Narrative review; n/a. - Population / baseline: Exercise physiology. - Verified extraction: Indexed as the review of cardiovascular drift in prolonged exercise. Magnitudes not re-extracted. - Limitations: Metadata/title. Not used for numeric claims. - Identity only: this record does not verify a study result; any quantitative wording must be traced to an actually retrieved abstract/full text. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON55 — Influence of graded dehydration on hyperthermia and cardiovascular drift during exercise

Montain SJ; Coyle EF; 1992. Original source. Access: metadata; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1152/jappl.1992.73.4.1340. PMID: 1447078. - Design / duration: Controlled laboratory study; Acute. - Population / baseline: Not re-extracted. - Verified extraction: Title result: graded dehydration amplifies hyperthermia and cardiovascular drift. Magnitudes not re-extracted. - Limitations: Title-level use only. - Identity only: this record does not verify a study result; any quantitative wording must be traced to an actually retrieved abstract/full text. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON56 — Cardiovascular drift is related to reduced maximal oxygen uptake during heat stress

Wingo JE; Lafrenz AJ; Ganio MS; Edwards GL; 2005. Original source. Access: metadata; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000152731.33450.95. PMID: 15692320. - Design / duration: Laboratory study; Acute. - Population / baseline: Not re-extracted. - Verified extraction: Title result: drift in the heat is related to reduced VO2max. Magnitudes not re-extracted. - Limitations: Title-level use only. - Identity only: this record does not verify a study result; any quantitative wording must be traced to an actually retrieved abstract/full text. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON58 — Recovery and performance in sport: consensus statement

Kellmann M et al.; 2018. Original source. Access: metadata; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2017-0759. PMID: 29345524. - Design / duration: Consensus statement; n/a. - Population / baseline: Athletes. - Verified extraction: Cited for scope only: recovery is multidimensional. Recommendations not re-extracted. - Limitations: Metadata. - Identity only: this record does not verify a study result; any quantitative wording must be traced to an actually retrieved abstract/full text. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1

MON59 — Is it all for naught? What does mathematical coupling mean for acute:chronic workload ratios?

Windt J; Gabbett TJ; 2019. Original source. Access: metadata; checked 2026-10-02.

DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2017-098925. PMID: 29807930. - Design / duration: Methodological commentary; n/a. - Population / baseline: ACWR literature. - Verified extraction: Identified as the mathematical-coupling critique of acute:chronic ratios. Not expanded. - Limitations: Metadata. - Identity only: this record does not verify a study result; any quantitative wording must be traced to an actually retrieved abstract/full text. - Relevant chapters: Load and adaptation monitoring - Retrieval routes: source 1